Evolutionary Considerations on the Emerging Subculture of the E-psychonauts and the Novel Psychoactive Substances: A Comeback to the Shamanism?
BACKGROUND
Evolutionary research on drug abuse has hitherto been restricted to proximate studies, considering aetiology, mechanism, and ontogeny. However, in order to explain the recent emergency of a new behavioral pattern (e.g. 'the e-psychonaut style') of novel psychoactive substances' (NPS) intake, a complementary evolutionary model may be needed.


OBJECTIVE
A range of evolutionary interpretations on the 'psychonaut style' and the recent emergency of NPS were here considered.


METHODS
The PubMed database was searched in order to elicit evolutionary theory-based documents commenting on NPS/NPS users/e-psychonauts.


RESULTS
The traditional 'shamanic style' use of entheogens/plant-derived compounds may present with a range of similarities with the 'e-psychonauts' use of mostly of hallucinogen/psychedelic NPS. These users consider themselves as 'new/technological' shamans.


CONCLUSIONS
Indeed, a range of evolutionary mechanisms, such as: optimal foraging, costly signaling, and reproduction at the expense of health may all cooperate to explain the recent spread and diffusion of the NPS market, and this may represent a reason of concern.
Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, College Lane Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts, AL10 9AB. United Kingdom.
Laura
L
Orsolini
Hertfordshire Partnership University NHS Foundation Trust, Civic Offices, Elstree Way, Borehamwood, Hertfordshire, WD6 1WA. United Kingdom.
Paul
P
St John-Smith
Child and Family Department, The Tavistock and Portman NHS Foundation Trust, Child and Family Department - 120 Belsize Lane, London, NW3 5BA & Eating Disorder Unit, Cygnet Hospital Ealing, 22 Corfton Road, Ealing, W5 2HT. United Kingdom.
Daniel
D
McQueen
Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, College Lane Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts, AL10 9AB. United Kingdom.
Duccio
D
Papanti
Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, College Lane Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts, AL10 9AB. United Kingdom.
John
J
Corkery
Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, College Lane Campus, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts, AL10 9AB. United Kingdom.
Fabrizio
F
Schifano
D000818:Animals; D003468:Cultural Evolution; D006801:Humans; D011619:Psychotropic Drugs / Q000032:analysis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D039781:PubMed / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D019423:Shamanism; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000188:drug therapy*
D011619:Psychotropic Drugs
Evolutionary models; NPS; entheogens; evolution; novel psychoactive substances; psychiatry; psychonauts; shamanism