Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Athletes Involved with High-impact Sports.
OBJECTIVE
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is a neurodegenerative disease occurring most commonly in athletes and is caused by repeated concussive or subconcussive blows to the head. The main purpose of this review is to evaluate the published literature on chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) in athletes participating in high-impact sports. In particular, we highlight the significance of concussive and subconcussive impacts in multiple sports, elucidate the differences between clinical/pathological features of CTE and related neurodegenerative diseases, and provide an explanation for the variation in clinical presentation between athletes of different sports.


METHODS
A review targeting relevant publications to CTE was performed. The PubMed/MEDLINE index was searched for keywords such as "chronic traumatic encephalopathy," "repetitive traumatic brain injury," "mild traumatic brain injury," and "concussion" from year 1924 through March 1, 2016.


RESULTS
A consensus panel's recent identification of a pathognomonic pathology in CTE, characterized by an irregular distribution of phosphorylated tau deposits, is an important step in developing consensus diagnostic criteria and clinicopathological studies. After review of major clinical studies, evidence suggests that there are clear differences in neuropathological features, clinical progression, and manifestation of symptoms between CTE and other neurodegenerative diseases. The literature suggests boxers tend to have more severe symptoms than other athletes due to more frequent rotational and shearing impacts. Data regarding genetic predispositions of CTE have been inconsistent in part due to low subject populations. Positron emission tomography imaging involving tau-binding ligands has recently proven effective in differentiating CTE from control groups and other neurodegenerative diseases.


CONCLUSIONS
Further longitudinal studies should be conducted to correlate the number of suffered concussive/subconcussive forces to the likelihood of developing chronic traumatic brain injury symptoms. Research striving for a reliable antemortem CTE diagnosis would be immensely beneficial, leading to more accurate estimates of prevalence, allowing clinicians to assess future risk of athletes' continued participation in sports, and enabling clinicians to make appropriate preventive recommendations.
Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
Cyrus
C
Safinia
Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
Eric M
EM
Bershad
Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
H Brent
HB
Clark
Department of Pathology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA.
Karen
K
SantaCruz
Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
Naila
N
Alakbarova
Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
Jose I
JI
Suarez
Department of Neurology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA; Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
Afshin A
AA
Divani
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy; brain injury; concussion; neurological injury; pathology; traumatic brain injury