Ashamed and Afraid: A Scoping Review of the Role of Shame in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).
BACKGROUND
Despite considerable progress in the treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a large percentage of individuals remain symptomatic following gold-standard therapies. One route to improving care is examining affective disturbances that involve other emotions beyond fear and threat. A growing body of research has implicated shame in PTSD's development and course, although to date no review of this specific literature exists. This scoping review investigated the link between shame and PTSD and sought to identify research gaps.


METHODS
A systematic database search of PubMed, PsycInfo, Embase, Cochrane, and CINAHL was conducted to find original quantitative research related to shame and PTSD.


RESULTS
Forty-seven studies met inclusion criteria. Review found substantial support for an association between shame and PTSD as well as preliminary evidence suggesting its utility as a treatment target. Several design limitations and under-investigated areas were recognized, including the need for a multimodal assessment of shame and more longitudinal and treatment-focused research.


CONCLUSIONS
This review provides crucial synthesis of research to date, highlighting the prominence of shame in PTSD, and its likely relevance in successful treatment outcomes. The present review serves as a guide to future work into this critical area of study.
Gordon F. Derner Institute for Advanced Psychological Studies, Adelphi University, Garden City, NY 11530, USA. tanyasaraiya@mail.adelphi.edu.
Tanya
T
Saraiya
The City College of New York, City University of New York, New York, NY 10031, USA. tlopezcastro@ccny.cuny.edu.
Teresa
T
Lopez-Castro
PTSD; embarrassment; humiliation; posttraumatic stress disorder; scoping review; shame; trauma