Human bocavirus: Current knowledge and future challenges.
Human bocavirus (HBoV) is a parvovirus isolated about a decade ago and found worldwide in both respiratory samples, mainly from early life and children of 6-24 mo of age with acute respiratory infection, and in stool samples, from patients with gastroenteritis. Since then, other viruses related to the first HBoV isolate (HBoV1), namely HBoV2, HBoV3 and HBoV4, have been detected principally in human faeces. HBoVs are small non-enveloped single-stranded DNA viruses of about 5300 nucleotides, consisting of three open reading frames encoding the first two the non-structural protein 1 (NS1) and nuclear phosphoprotein (NP1) and the third the viral capsid proteins 1 and 2 (VP1 and VP2). HBoV pathogenicity remains to be fully clarified mainly due to the lack of animal models for the difficulties in replicating the virus inin vitrocell cultures, and the fact that HBoV infection is frequently accompanied by at least another viral and/or bacterial respiratory and/or gastroenteric pathogen infection. Current diagnostic methods to support HBoV detection include polymerase chain reaction, real-time PCR, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and enzyme immunoassay using recombinant VP2 or virus-like particle capsid proteins, although sequence-independent amplification techniques combined with next-generation sequencing platforms promise rapid and simultaneous detection of the pathogens in the future. This review presents the current knowledge on HBoV genotypes with emphasis on taxonomy, phylogenetic relationship and genomic analysis, biology, epidemiology, pathogenesis and diagnostic methods. The emerging discussion on HBoVs as true pathogen or innocent bystander is also emphasized.
Marcello Guido, Francesca Serio, Mattia De Giorgi, Antonella De Donno, Francesco Bagordo, Laboratory of Hygiene, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, Faculty of Sciences, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy.
Marcello
M
Guido
Marcello Guido, Francesca Serio, Mattia De Giorgi, Antonella De Donno, Francesco Bagordo, Laboratory of Hygiene, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, Faculty of Sciences, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy.
Maria Rosaria
MR
Tumolo
Marcello Guido, Francesca Serio, Mattia De Giorgi, Antonella De Donno, Francesco Bagordo, Laboratory of Hygiene, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, Faculty of Sciences, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy.
Tiziano
T
Verri
Marcello Guido, Francesca Serio, Mattia De Giorgi, Antonella De Donno, Francesco Bagordo, Laboratory of Hygiene, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, Faculty of Sciences, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy.
Alessandro
A
Romano
Marcello Guido, Francesca Serio, Mattia De Giorgi, Antonella De Donno, Francesco Bagordo, Laboratory of Hygiene, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, Faculty of Sciences, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy.
Francesca
F
Serio
Marcello Guido, Francesca Serio, Mattia De Giorgi, Antonella De Donno, Francesco Bagordo, Laboratory of Hygiene, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, Faculty of Sciences, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy.
Mattia
M
De Giorgi
Marcello Guido, Francesca Serio, Mattia De Giorgi, Antonella De Donno, Francesco Bagordo, Laboratory of Hygiene, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, Faculty of Sciences, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy.
Antonella
A
De Donno
Marcello Guido, Francesca Serio, Mattia De Giorgi, Antonella De Donno, Francesco Bagordo, Laboratory of Hygiene, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, Faculty of Sciences, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy.
Francesco
F
Bagordo
Marcello Guido, Francesca Serio, Mattia De Giorgi, Antonella De Donno, Francesco Bagordo, Laboratory of Hygiene, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, Faculty of Sciences, University of Salento, 73100 Lecce, Italy.
Antonella
A
Zizza
D016000:Cluster Analysis; D005838:Genotype; D056661:Human bocavirus / Q000145:classification*; D006801:Humans; D009711:Nucleotides; D010322:Parvoviridae Infections / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000628:therapy; D010802:Phylogeny; D012141:Respiratory Tract Infections / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000628:therapy / Q000821:virology*; D016036:Seroepidemiologic Studies; D017361:Viral Nonstructural Proteins / Q000378:metabolism
C106202:NS1 protein, parvovirus; D009711:Nucleotides; D017361:Viral Nonstructural Proteins
Epidemiology; Gastrointestinal virus; Human bocavirus; Immunoassay methods; Molecular tests; Pathogenesis; Respiratory virus