title: Origin, distribution, and potential risk factors associated with influenza A virus in swine in two production systems in Guatemala.
abstract: Guatemala is the country with the largest swine production in Central America; however, evidence of influenza A virus (IAV) in pigs has not been clearly delineated.
  
  
  
  In this study, we analyzed the presence and spatial distribution of IAV in commercial and backyard swine populations.
  
  
  
  Samples from two nationwide surveys conducted in 2010 and 2011 were tested using virological (rRT-PCR and virus isolation) and serological (ELISA and hemagglutination inhibition) assays to detect IAV.
  
  
  
  Influenza A virus was detected in 15.7% of the sampled pigs (30.6% of herds) in 2010 and in 11.7% (24.2% of herds) in 2011. The percentage of seropositive pigs was 10.6% (16.1% of herds) and 1.4% (3.1% of herds) for each year, respectively. Three pandemic H1N1 and one seasonal human-like H3N2 viruses were isolated. Antibodies against viruses from different genetic clusters were detected. No reassortant strains with swine viruses were detected. The H3N2 virus was closely related to human viruses that circulated in Central America in 2010, distinct to the most recent human seasonal vaccine lineages. Spatial clusters of rRT-PCR positive herds were detected each year by scan statistics.
  
  
  
  Our results demonstrate circulation of IAV throughout Guatemala and identify commercial farms, animal health status, and age as potential risk factors associated with IAV infection and exposure. Detection of human-origin viruses in pigs suggests a role for humans in the molecular epidemiology of IAV in swine in Guatemala and evidences gaps in local animal and human surveillance.
authors.affiliation: Department of Population Health, Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center Athens, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.|Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala City, Guatemala.
authors.forename: Ana S
authors.initials: AS
authors.lastname: Gonzalez-Reiche
authors.affiliation: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala City, Guatemala.|Prince Leopold Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium.
authors.forename: Ana L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Ramírez
authors.affiliation: Department of Population Health, Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center Athens, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.|Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala City, Guatemala.
authors.forename: María L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Müller
authors.affiliation: Ministerio de Agricultura Ganadería y Alimentación, Guatemala city, Guatemala.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Orellana
authors.affiliation: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala City, Guatemala.
authors.forename: Silvia M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Sosa
authors.affiliation: Ministerio de Agricultura Ganadería y Alimentación, Guatemala city, Guatemala.
authors.forename: Pablo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Ola
authors.affiliation: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala City, Guatemala.
authors.forename: Jorge
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Paniagua
authors.affiliation: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala City, Guatemala.
authors.forename: Lucía
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Ortíz
authors.affiliation: University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
authors.forename: Jorge
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Hernandez
authors.affiliation: Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, Guatemala City, Guatemala.
authors.forename: Celia
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Cordón-Rosales
authors.affiliation: Department of Population Health, Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center Athens, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
authors.forename: Daniel R
authors.initials: DR
authors.lastname: Perez
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000914:Antibodies, Viral / Q000097:blood; D004797:Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay; D006166:Guatemala / Q000453:epidemiology; D006385:Hemagglutination Inhibition Tests; D019267:Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus / Q000235:genetics; D006801:Humans; D053118:Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000276:immunology / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D053122:Influenza A Virus, H3N2 Subtype / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000276:immunology / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D007251:Influenza, Human / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000635:transmission / Q000821:virology; D058751:Livestock / Q000821:virology*; D009976:Orthomyxoviridae Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000635:transmission / Q000662:veterinary* / Q000821:virology; D010802:Phylogeny; D012307:Risk Factors; D062206:Spatial Analysis; D013552:Swine; D013553:Swine Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000635:transmission / Q000821:virology
chemical_list: D000914:Antibodies, Viral; D019267:Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus
keywords: Central America; Guatemala; epidemiology; farm; influenza A virus; phylogeny; spatial analysis; swine