title: Foot pressure distributions during walking in African elephants (Loxodonta africana).
abstract: Elephants, the largest living land mammals, have evolved a specialized foot morphology to help reduce locomotor pressures while supporting their large body mass. Peak pressures that could cause tissue damage are mitigated passively by the anatomy of elephants' feet, yet this mechanism does not seem to work well for some captive animals. This study tests how foot pressures vary among African and Asian elephants from habitats where natural substrates predominate but where foot care protocols differ. Variations in pressure patterns might be related to differences in husbandry, including but not limited to trimming and the substrates that elephants typically stand and move on. Both species' samples exhibited the highest concentration of peak pressures on the lateral digits of their feet (which tend to develop more disease in elephants) and lower pressures around the heel. The trajectories of the foot's centre of pressure were also similar, confirming that when walking at similar speeds, both species load their feet laterally at impact and then shift their weight medially throughout the step until toe-off. Overall, we found evidence of variations in foot pressure patterns that might be attributable to husbandry and other causes, deserving further examination using broader, more comparable samples.
authors.affiliation: Moving Morphology and Functional Mechanics Laboratory, School of Biomedical Sciences , The University of Queensland , Brisbane , Australia.
authors.forename: Olga
authors.identifier: 0000-0002-6457-448X
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Panagiotopoulou
authors.affiliation: Institute for Fiber Engineering, Department of Bioengineering , Shinshu University , Ueda , Japan.
authors.forename: Todd C
authors.initials: TC
authors.lastname: Pataky
authors.affiliation: Moving Morphology and Functional Mechanics Laboratory, School of Biomedical Sciences , The University of Queensland , Brisbane , Australia.
authors.forename: Madeleine
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Day
authors.affiliation: Adventures with Elephants , PO Box 1500, Bela Bela 0480, Limpopo , South Africa.
authors.forename: Michael C
authors.initials: MC
authors.lastname: Hensman
authors.affiliation: Adventures with Elephants , PO Box 1500, Bela Bela 0480, Limpopo , South Africa.
authors.forename: Sean
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Hensman
authors.affiliation: Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK; Moving Morphology and Functional Mechanics Laboratory, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
authors.forename: John R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Hutchinson
authors.affiliation: School of Science and Engineering , The University of Sunshine Coast , Australia.
authors.forename: Christofer J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Clemente
keywords: Proboscidea; biomechanics; centre of pressure; elephant feet; locomotion; welfare