title: Assessment of Bioequivalence of Weak Base Formulations Under Various Dosing Conditions Using Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Simulations in Virtual Populations. Case Examples: Ketoconazole and Posaconazole.
abstract: Postabsorptive factors which can affect systemic drug exposure are assumed to be dependent on the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), and thus independent of formulation. In contrast, preabsorptive factors, for example, hypochlorhydria, might affect systemic exposure in both an API and a formulation-dependent way. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the oral absorption of 2 poorly soluble, weakly basic APIs, ketoconazole (KETO) and posaconazole (POSA), would be equally sensitive to changes in dissolution rate under the following dosing conditions-coadministration with water, with food, with carbonated drinks, and in drug-induced hypochlorhydria. The systems-components of validated absorption and PBPK models for KETO and POSA were modified to simulate the above-mentioned clinical scenarios. Virtual bioequivalence studies were then carried out to investigate whether formulation effects on the plasma profile vary with the dosing conditions. The slow precipitation of KETO upon reaching the upper part of the small intestine renders its absorption more sensitive to the completeness of gastric dissolution and thus to the gastric environment than POSA, which is subject to extensive precipitation in response to a pH shift. The virtual bioequivalence studies showed that hypothetical test and reference formulations containing KETO would be bioequivalent only if the microenvironment in the stomach enables complete gastric dissolution. We conclude that physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling and simulation has excellent potential to address issues close to bedside such as optimizing dosing conditions. By studying virtual populations adapted to various clinical situations, clinical strategies to reduce therapeutic failures can be identified.
authors.affiliation: Division of Therapeutic Equivalence, Brazilian Health Surveillance Agency (Anvisa), Brasilia, Brazil; Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
authors.forename: Rodrigo
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Cristofoletti
authors.affiliation: Simcyp Limited (a Certara Company), Blades Enterprise Centre, Sheffield, UK.
authors.forename: Nikunjkumar
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Patel
authors.affiliation: Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, Germany. Electronic address: dressman@em.uni-frankfurt.de.
authors.forename: Jennifer B
authors.initials: JB
authors.lastname: Dressman
mesh_terms: D000284:Administration, Oral; D000328:Adult; D000935:Antifungal Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000737:chemistry / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*; D002253:Carbonated Beverages; D003198:Computer Simulation; D005215:Fasting; D005753:Gastric Mucosa / Q000378:metabolism; D006801:Humans; D006863:Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; D007408:Intestinal Absorption; D007421:Intestine, Small / Q000378:metabolism; D007654:Ketoconazole / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000737:chemistry / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*; D008954:Models, Biological; D012995:Solubility; D013810:Therapeutic Equivalency; D014230:Triazoles / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000737:chemistry / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*
chemical_list: D000935:Antifungal Agents; D014230:Triazoles; C101425:posaconazole; D007654:Ketoconazole
keywords: Biopharmaceutics Classification System; bioequivalence; disease states; dissolution; physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling