title: A conceptual framework for understanding illegal killing of large carnivores.
abstract: The growing complexity and global nature of wildlife poaching threaten the survival of many species worldwide and are outpacing conservation efforts. Here, we reviewed proximal and distal factors, both social and ecological, driving illegal killing or poaching of large carnivores at sites where it can potentially occur. Through this review, we developed a conceptual social-ecological system framework that ties together many of the factors influencing large carnivore poaching. Unlike most conservation action models, an important attribute of our framework is the integration of multiple factors related to both human motivations and animal vulnerability into feedbacks. We apply our framework to two case studies, tigers in Laos and wolverines in northern Sweden, to demonstrate its utility in disentangling some of the complex features of carnivore poaching that may have hindered effective responses to the current poaching crisis. Our framework offers a common platform to help guide future research on wildlife poaching feedbacks, which has hitherto been lacking, in order to effectively inform policy making and enforcement.
authors.affiliation: Human-Environment Systems Research Center, Boise State University, 1910 University Dr., Boise, ID, 83725, USA. neilcarter@boisestate.edu.
authors.forename: Neil H
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4399-6384
authors.initials: NH
authors.lastname: Carter
authors.affiliation: Research Unit of Biodiversity (UO/CSIC/PA), Oviedo University, Gonzalo Gutiérrez Quirós s/n, 33600, Mieres, Spain.
authors.forename: José Vicente
authors.initials: JV
authors.lastname: López-Bao
authors.affiliation: School of Environment & Natural Resources, Ohio State University, 2021 Coffey Rd., Columbus, OH, 43210, USA.
authors.forename: Jeremy T
authors.initials: JT
authors.lastname: Bruskotter
authors.affiliation: Office of the Geographer and Global Issues, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC, 20025, USA.
authors.forename: Meredith
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Gore
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology, Grimsö Wildlife Research Station, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 730 91, Riddarhyttan, Sweden.
authors.forename: Guillaume
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Chapron
authors.affiliation: Foundations of Success, 4109 Maryland Avenue, Bethesda, MD, 20816, USA.
authors.forename: Arlyne
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Johnson
authors.affiliation: Department of Law, Uppsala University, Box 512, 751 20, Uppsala, Sweden.
authors.forename: Yaffa
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Epstein
authors.affiliation: Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, MRC 5503, 3001 Connecticut Ave., NW, Washington, DC, 20008, USA.
authors.forename: Mahendra
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Shrestha
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology, Grimsö Wildlife Research Station, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 730 91, Riddarhyttan, Sweden.
authors.forename: Jens
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Frank
authors.affiliation: Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 30A Science, Madison, WI, USA.
authors.forename: Omar
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Ohrens
authors.affiliation: Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 30A Science, Madison, WI, USA.
authors.forename: Adrian
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Treves
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003247:Conservation of Natural Resources; D000066479:Criminal Behavior; D017753:Ecosystem; D006801:Humans; D007812:Laos; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D045969:Mustelidae; D011640:Public Policy; D013548:Sweden; D046010:Tigers
keywords: Carnivores; Feedbacks; Gulo gulo; Panthera tigris; Poaching; Social–ecological systems