title: Gender and Direction of Effect of Alcohol Problems and Internalizing Symptoms in a Longitudinal Sample of College Students.
abstract: Alcohol problems and internalizing symptoms are consistently found to be associated but how they relate to each other is unclear.
  
  
  
  The present study aimed to address limitations in the literature of comorbidity of alcohol problems and internalizing symptoms by investigating the direction of effect between the phenotypes and possible gender differences in college students.
  
  
  
  We utilized data from a large longitudinal study of college students from the United States (N = 2607). Three waves of questionnaire-based data were collected over the first two years of college (in 2011-2013). Cross-lagged models were applied to examine the possible direction of effect of internalizing symptoms and alcohol problems. Possible effects of gender were investigated using multigroup modeling.
  
  
  
  There were significant correlations between alcohol problems and internalizing symptoms. A direction of effect was found between alcohol problems and internalizing symptoms but differed between genders. A unidirectional relationship varying with age was identified for males where alcohol problems initially predicted internalizing symptoms followed by internalizing symptoms predicting alcohol problems. For females, a unidirectional relationship existed wherein alcohol problems predicted internalizing symptoms. Conclusions/Importance: We conclude that the relationship between alcohol problems and internalizing symptoms is complex and differ between genders. In males, both phenotypes are predictive of each other, while in females the relationship is driven by alcohol problems. Importantly, our study examines a population-based sample, revealing that the observed relationships between alcohol problems and internalizing symptoms are not limited to individuals with clinically diagnosed mental health or substance use problems.
authors.affiliation: a Institute of Clinical Sciences, Queens University Belfast , Belfast , United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Lina E
authors.initials: LE
authors.lastname: Homman
authors.affiliation: b Department of Psychiatry , Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond , Virginia , USA.
authors.forename: Alexis C
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: Edwards
authors.affiliation: b Department of Psychiatry , Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond , Virginia , USA.|c Department of Psychology , Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond , Virginia , USA.|d Department of African American Studies , Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond , Virginia , USA.
authors.forename: Seung Bin
authors.initials: SB
authors.lastname: Cho
authors.affiliation: c Department of Psychology , Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond , Virginia , USA.|d Department of African American Studies , Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond , Virginia , USA.
authors.forename: Danielle M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Dick
authors.affiliation: b Department of Psychiatry , Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond , Virginia , USA.
authors.forename: Kenneth S
authors.initials: KS
authors.lastname: Kendler
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000437:Alcoholism / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology / Q000523:psychology*; D003863:Depression / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D012737:Sex Factors; D013334:Students / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology; D014495:Universities; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Alcohol; anxiety; college sample; cross-lagged modeling; depression; internalizing symptoms; longitudinal