title: How much reduction of virus is needed for recycled water: A continuous changing need for assessment?
abstract: To ensure the safety of wastewater reuse for irrigation of food crops and drinking water pathogenic viruses must be reduced to levels that pose no significant risk. To achieve this goal minimum reduction of viruses by treatment trains have been suggested. For use of edible crops a 6-log reduction and for production of potable drinking water a 12-log reduction has been suggested. These reductions were based on assuming infective virus concentrations of 105to 106per liter. Recent application of molecular methods suggests that some pathogenic viruses may be occurring in concentrations of 107to 109per liter. Factors influencing these levels include the development of molecular methods for virus detection, emergence of newly recognized viruses, decrease in per capita water use due to conservation measures, and outbreaks. Since neither cell culture nor molecular methods can assess all the potentially infectious virus in wastewater conservative estimates should be used to assess the virus load in untreated wastewater. This review indicates that an additional 2- to 3-log reduction of viruses above current recommendations may be needed to ensure the safety of recycled water. Information is needed on peak loading of viruses. In addition, more virus groups need to be quantified using better methods of virus quantification, including more accurate methods for measuring viral infectivity in order to better quantify risks from viruses in recycled water.
authors.affiliation: The Water, Energy and Sustainable Technology Center, Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States. Electronic address: gerba@ag.arizona.edu.
authors.forename: Charles P
authors.initials: CP
authors.lastname: Gerba
authors.affiliation: The Water, Energy and Sustainable Technology Center, Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States. Electronic address: wbetancourt@email.arizona.edu.
authors.forename: Walter Q
authors.initials: WQ
authors.lastname: Betancourt
authors.affiliation: Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan. Electronic address: mkitajima@eng.hokudai.ac.jp.
authors.forename: Masaaki
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kitajima
mesh_terms: D059027:Recycling; D014780:Viruses; D062065:Wastewater; D014867:Water; D018508:Water Purification; D014881:Water Supply
chemical_list: D062065:Wastewater; D014867:Water
keywords: Recycle; Reduction; Reuse; Viruses; Wastewater