title: Movement reveals scale dependence in habitat selection of a large ungulate.
abstract: Ecological processes operate across temporal and spatial scales. Anthropogenic disturbances impact these processes, but examinations of scale dependence in impacts are infrequent. Such examinations can provide important insight to wildlife-human interactions and guide management efforts to reduce impacts. We assessed spatiotemporal scale dependence in habitat selection of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in the Piceance Basin of Colorado, USA, an area of ongoing natural gas development. We employed a newly developed animal movement method to assess habitat selection across scales defined using animal-centric spatiotemporal definitions ranging from the local (defined from five hour movements) to the broad (defined from weekly movements). We extended our analysis to examine variation in scale dependence between night and day and assess functional responses in habitat selection patterns relative to the density of anthropogenic features. Mule deer displayed scale invariance in the direction of their response to energy development features, avoiding well pads and the areas closest to roads at all scales, though with increasing strength of avoidance at coarser scales. Deer displayed scale-dependent responses to most other habitat features, including land cover type and habitat edges. Selection differed between night and day at the finest scales, but homogenized as scale increased. Deer displayed functional responses to development, with deer inhabiting the least developed ranges more strongly avoiding development relative to those with more development in their ranges. Energy development was a primary driver of habitat selection patterns in mule deer, structuring their behaviors across all scales examined. Stronger avoidance at coarser scales suggests that deer behaviorally mediated their interaction with development, but only to a degree. At higher development densities than seen in this area, such mediation may not be possible and thus maintenance of sufficient habitat with lower development densities will be a critical best management practice as development expands globally.
authors.affiliation: Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, USA.
authors.forename: Joseph M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Northrup
authors.affiliation: Mammals Research Section, Colorado Parks and Wildlife, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, USA.
authors.forename: Charles R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Anderson
authors.affiliation: U.S. Geological Survey, Colorado Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, USA.
authors.forename: Mevin B
authors.initials: MB
authors.lastname: Hooten
authors.affiliation: Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology and Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 80523, USA.
authors.forename: George
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Wittemyer
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003120:Colorado; D003670:Deer; D017753:Ecosystem; D006802:Human Activities; D006801:Humans; D059206:Natural Gas; D011157:Population Dynamics
chemical_list: D059206:Natural Gas
keywords: 
  Odocoileus hemionus
  ; animal movement; hydrocarbon development; movement ecology; oil and natural gas; resource selection function; wildlife