title: Are advanced three-dimensional imaging studies always needed to measure the coronal knee alignment of the lower extremity?
abstract: Coronal malalignment of the lower extremity is closely related to the onset and progression of osteoarthritis. Restoring satisfactory alignment after tibial osteotomy improves the long-term success of this conservative surgery. The purpose of our study was to determine (1) if there is a difference between two-dimensional (2D) and 3D measurements of the hip-knee-ankle (HKA) angle between the mechanical axes of the femur and the tibia, (2) which parameter most affects 2D-3D HKA measurement, and (3) the percentage of patients who are at risk of error in HKA measurement.
  
  
  
  We reviewed imaging studies of the consecutive patients referred to us for hip or knee pain between June and October 2013. Patients with previous pelvis or lower extremity surgery were excluded.
  
  
  
  In 51 % (95/186) of lower extremities examined, the 3D method showed more valgus than the 2D method, and in 49 % (91/186), the 3D method showed more varus. In 12 % of extremities (23/186), the knee varus or valgus alignment was completely opposite in 3D images compared to 2D images. Having more than 7° of flexum/recurvatum alignment increased error in 2D HKA measurement by 5.7°. This was calculated to be 0.15° per 1° increase in femoral torsion and 0.05° per 1° increase in tibial torsion. Approximately 20 % of patients might be at risk of error in HKA angle measurement in 2D imaging studies.
  
  
  
  Orthopaedic surgeons should assess lower extremity alignment in standing position, with enough exposure of the extremity to find severe alignment or rotational deformities, and consider advanced 3D images of those patients who have them. Otherwise, HKA angle can be measured with good accuracy with 2D techniques.
  
  
  
  Level-III diagnostic.
authors.affiliation: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
authors.forename: Jean Yves
authors.initials: JY
authors.lastname: Lazennec
authors.affiliation: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
authors.forename: Quentin
authors.initials: Q
authors.lastname: Chometon
authors.affiliation: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
authors.forename: Dominique
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Folinais
authors.affiliation: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
authors.forename: Christopher B
authors.initials: CB
authors.lastname: Robbins
authors.affiliation: University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA. aeslampo@med.umich.edu.
authors.forename: Aidin Eslam
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Pour
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000843:Ankle Joint / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D018771:Arthralgia / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging; D017760:Bone Malalignment / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D005260:Female; D005269:Femur / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging; D006621:Hip Joint / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D006801:Humans; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional; D007719:Knee Joint / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D035002:Lower Extremity / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011187:Posture; D013977:Tibia / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Coronal knee alignment; Hip-knee-ankle angle; Knee; Radiographs; Three-dimensional imaging