title: Father absence but not fosterage predicts food insecurity, relative poverty, and poor child health in northern Tanzania.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The importance of fathers in ensuring child health in rural developing populations is questioned by anthropologists and population health scientists. Existing literature focuses on paternal death and child mortality. A relative lack of studies consider alternative forms of father absence and/or more subtle health outcomes. Here we determine the frequency and form of father absence in northern Tanzania, and its relationship to household food security, wealth, and child anthropometric status.
  
  
  METHODS
  We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 3136 children under 5 years of age from 56 villages. Using multilevel regression we contrast children residing with both parents to those that (i) have experienced paternal death, (ii) reside with their mother but not their living father and (iii) are fostered apart from both living parents.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Of the total, 3.5% of children had experienced paternal death. Thirteen percent resided with their mother but away from their living father. Supporting data indicate such cases primarily reflect parental divorce/separation, extra-marital birth, or polygynous fathers residing with an alternative cowife. Paternal death and residing apart from one's living father was associated with lower food security and/or relative poverty and there is suggestive evidence that children in such circumstances achieve lower height-for-age. Six percent of children were fostered, usually with grandparents, and were comparable to children residing with both parents in terms of household food security, wealth, and anthropometric status.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results highlight diversity in the form and consequences of father absence. We discuss limitations of the current study and wider literature on fatherhood and make suggestions for future research.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, California, 93106, USA.
authors.forename: David W
authors.initials: DW
authors.lastname: Lawson
authors.affiliation: Department of Population Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, WC1E 7HT, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Susan B
authors.initials: SB
authors.lastname: Schaffnit
authors.affiliation: Department of Population Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, WC1E 7HT, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Anushé
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hassan
authors.affiliation: National Institute for Medical Research, Muhimbili Medical Research Centre, Dar es Salaam, 11101, Tanzania.
authors.forename: Esther
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Ngadaya
authors.affiliation: National Institute for Medical Research, Muhimbili Medical Research Centre, Dar es Salaam, 11101, Tanzania.
authors.forename: Bernard
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Ngowi
authors.affiliation: National Institute for Medical Research, Muhimbili Medical Research Centre, Dar es Salaam, 11101, Tanzania.
authors.forename: Sayoki G M
authors.initials: SGM
authors.lastname: Mfinanga
authors.affiliation: Savannas Forever Tanzania, Arusha, P.O. Box 878, Tanzania.
authors.forename: Susan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: James
authors.affiliation: Savannas Forever Tanzania, Arusha, P.O. Box 878, Tanzania.|Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis One Shields Avenue, Davis, California, 95616, USA.
authors.forename: Monique
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Borgerhoff Mulder
mesh_terms: D000886:Anthropometry; D000067576:Child Health; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005191:Family Characteristics; D005220:Fathers; D005523:Food Supply; D005581:Foster Home Care / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D011203:Poverty; D012424:Rural Population / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D013636:Tanzania
keywords: child health; family structure; fatherhood; fostering; parental investment