title: Adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Associations between subtype and lifetime substance use - a clinical study.
abstract: ADHD is the one of the most prevalent childhood disorders and has been associated with impairments persisting into adulthood. Specifically, childhood ADHD is an independent clinical risk factor for the development of later substance use disorders (SUD). Moreover, adults who meet diagnostic criteria for ADHD have shown high rates of comorbid SUDs. Few studies, however, have reported on the relationship between ADHD subtypes and SUD in adult samples. The purpose of this study was to characterize a clinical sample of adults with ADHD and to identify possible associations between ADHD subtypes, lifetime substance use, and if ADHD subtypes may be preferentially associated with specific substances of abuse. We recruited 413 adult ADHD patients, performed an evaluation of their ADHD and conducted an interview on their use of psychotropic substances. Complete data was obtained for 349 patients. Lifetime substance abuse or dependence was 26% and occasional use was 57% in this sample. The inattentive subtype was significantly less likely to abuse or be dependent on cocaine than the combined subtype. Our findings underscore the high rate of comorbidity between substance use and ADHD in adults. The more frequent abuse/dependence of cocaine by adult patients with hyperactive-impulsive symptoms should be kept in mind when treating this patient group.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Forensic Psychiatry, University of Bern, Bern, 3012, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Liebrenz
authors.affiliation: Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Forensic Psychiatry, University of Bern, Bern, 3012, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Alex
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Gamma
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
authors.forename: Iliyan
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Ivanov
authors.affiliation: Psychiatric University Hospital, Research Group on ADHD, Zurich, 8032, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Anna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Buadze
authors.affiliation: Psychiatric University Hospital, Research Group on ADHD, Zurich, 8032, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Dominique
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Eich
keywords: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); cocaine; dual-diagnosis; presentation; substance-use disorder; subtype