title: Photonic crystals: emerging biosensors and their promise for point-of-care applications.
abstract: Biosensors are extensively employed for diagnosing a broad array of diseases and disorders in clinical settings worldwide. The implementation of biosensors at the point-of-care (POC), such as at primary clinics or the bedside, faces impediments because they may require highly trained personnel, have long assay times, large sizes, and high instrumental cost. Thus, there exists a need to develop inexpensive, reliable, user-friendly, and compact biosensing systems at the POC. Biosensors incorporated with photonic crystal (PC) structures hold promise to address many of the aforementioned challenges facing the development of new POC diagnostics. Currently, PC-based biosensors have been employed for detecting a variety of biotargets, such as cells, pathogens, proteins, antibodies, and nucleic acids, with high efficiency and selectivity. In this review, we provide a broad overview of PCs by explaining their structures, fabrication techniques, and sensing principles. Furthermore, we discuss recent applications of PC-based biosensors incorporated with emerging technologies, including telemedicine, flexible and wearable sensing, smart materials and metamaterials. Finally, we discuss current challenges associated with existing biosensors, and provide an outlook for PC-based biosensors and their promise at the POC.
authors.affiliation: Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Radiology, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, 3155 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA. utkan@stanford.edu.
authors.forename: Hakan
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Inan
authors.affiliation: Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Radiology, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, 3155 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA. utkan@stanford.edu and Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Muhammet
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Poyraz
authors.affiliation: Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Radiology, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, 3155 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA. utkan@stanford.edu.
authors.forename: Fatih
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Inci
authors.affiliation: Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Radiology, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, 3155 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA. utkan@stanford.edu.
authors.forename: Mark A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Lifson
authors.affiliation: Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Radiology, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, 3155 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA. utkan@stanford.edu.
authors.forename: Murat
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Baday
authors.affiliation: Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA. bcunning@illinois.edu.
authors.forename: Brian T
authors.initials: BT
authors.lastname: Cunningham
authors.affiliation: Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Radiology, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, 3155 Porter Drive, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA. utkan@stanford.edu and Department of Electrical Engineering (by courtesy), Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Utkan
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Demirci
mesh_terms: D015374:Biosensing Techniques; D006801:Humans; D049329:Nanostructures / Q000737:chemistry; D017785:Photons; D019095:Point-of-Care Systems