title: Viral-bacterial interactions in the respiratory tract.
abstract: In the respiratory tract, viruses and bacteria can interact on multiple levels. It is well known that respiratory viruses, particularly influenza viruses, increase the susceptibility to secondary bacterial infections. Numerous mechanisms, including compromised physical and immunological barriers, and changes in the microenvironment have hereby been shown to contribute to the development of secondary bacterial infections. In contrast, our understanding of how bacteria shape a response to subsequent viral infection is still limited. There is emerging evidence that persistent infection (or colonization) of the lower respiratory tract (LRT) with potential pathogenic bacteria, as observed in diseases like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or cystic fibrosis, modulates subsequent viral infections by increasing viral entry receptors and modulating the inflammatory response. Moreover, recent studies suggest that even healthy lungs are not, as had long been assumed, sterile. The composition of the lung microbiome may thus modulate responses to viral infections. Here we summarize the current knowledge on the co-pathogenesis between viruses and bacteria in LRT infections.
authors.affiliation: Department of Respiratory Medicine, NUTRIM - School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands.|Department of Medical Microbiology, NUTRIM - School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Carla
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Bellinghausen
authors.affiliation: Department of Respiratory Medicine, NUTRIM - School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Gernot G U
authors.initials: GGU
authors.lastname: Rohde
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology, NUTRIM - School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands.|Department of Medical Microbiology & Infection Control, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Paul H M
authors.initials: PHM
authors.lastname: Savelkoul
authors.affiliation: Department of Respiratory Medicine, NUTRIM - School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Emiel F M
authors.initials: EFM
authors.lastname: Wouters
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology, NUTRIM - School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center+, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Frank R M
authors.initials: FRM
authors.lastname: Stassen
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001419:Bacteria / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D001424:Bacterial Infections / Q000382:microbiology*; D006801:Humans; D012141:Respiratory Tract Infections / Q000382:microbiology* / Q000821:virology*; D014777:Virus Diseases / Q000821:virology*; D014780:Viruses / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*