title: The effect of early life stress on the cognitive phenotype of children with an extra X chromosome (47,XXY/47,XXX).
abstract: Studies on gene-environment interactions suggest that some individuals may be more susceptible to life adversities than others due to their genetic profile. This study assesses whether or not children with an extra X chromosome are more vulnerable to the negative impact of early life stress on cognitive functioning than typically-developing children. A total of 50 children with an extra X chromosome and 103 non-clinical controls aged 9 to 18 years participated in the study. Cognitive functioning in domains of language, social cognition and executive functioning were assessed. Early life stress was measured with the Questionnaire of Life Events. High levels of early life stress were found to be associated with compromised executive functioning in the areas of mental flexibility and inhibitory control, irrespective of group membership. In contrast, the children with an extra X chromosome were found to be disproportionally vulnerable to deficits in social cognition on top of executive dysfunction, as compared to typically-developing children. Within the extra X group the number of negative life events is significantly correlated with more problems in inhibition, mental flexibility and social cognition. It is concluded that children with an extra X chromosome are vulnerable to adverse life events, with social cognition being particularly impacted in addition to the negative effects on executive functioning. The findings that developmental outcome is codependent on early environmental factors in genetically vulnerable children also underscores opportunities for training and support to positively influence the course of development.
authors.affiliation: a Clinical Child and Adolescent Studies , Leiden University , The Netherlands.|b Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition , The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Sophie
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: van Rijn
authors.affiliation: a Clinical Child and Adolescent Studies , Leiden University , The Netherlands.|b Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition , The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Petra
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Barneveld
authors.affiliation: c Center for Human Genetics , University Hospital of Leuven , Belgium.
authors.forename: Mie-Jef
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Descheemaeker
authors.affiliation: d Department of Medical Genetics , University Medical Centre Utrecht , The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Jacques
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Giltay
authors.affiliation: a Clinical Child and Adolescent Studies , Leiden University , The Netherlands.|b Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition , The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Hanna
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Swaab
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D002648:Child; D002657:Child Development; D041321:Chromosomes, Human, X; D003071:Cognition / Q000502:physiology*; D056344:Executive Function / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007713:Klinefelter Syndrome / Q000523:psychology*; D008297:Male; D010641:Phenotype; D012729:Sex Chromosome Aberrations; D058533:Sex Chromosome Disorders of Sex Development / Q000523:psychology*; D013315:Stress, Psychological; D014314:Trisomy
keywords: Klinefelter syndrome; Sex chromosome aneuploidy; Sex chromosome disorders; Trisomy X; X chromosome