title: A critical review of the current knowledge regarding the biological impact of nanocellulose.
abstract: Several forms of nanocellulose, notably cellulose nanocrystals and nanofibrillated cellulose, exhibit attractive property matrices and are potentially useful for a large number of industrial applications. These include the paper and cardboard industry, use as reinforcing filler in polymer composites, basis for low-density foams, additive in adhesives and paints, as well as a wide variety of food, hygiene, cosmetic, and medical products. Although the commercial exploitation of nanocellulose has already commenced, little is known as to the potential biological impact of nanocellulose, particularly in its raw form. This review provides a comprehensive and critical review of the current state of knowledge of nanocellulose in this format. Overall, the data seems to suggest that when investigated under realistic doses and exposure scenarios, nanocellulose has a limited associated toxic potential, albeit certain forms of nanocellulose can be associated with more hazardous biological behavior due to their specific physical characteristics.
authors.affiliation: Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700, Fribourg, Switzerland.|Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), Cnr College Rd & Cooper Rd, Building 75, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia.
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Endes
authors.affiliation: Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700, Fribourg, Switzerland.|Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology (AIBN), Cnr College Rd & Cooper Rd, Building 75, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Camarero-Espinosa
authors.affiliation: Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700, Fribourg, Switzerland.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Mueller
authors.affiliation: Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700, Fribourg, Switzerland.|Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Macromolecules Innovation Institute (MII), Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), 213 Holden Hall, 445 Old Turner Street, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
authors.forename: E J
authors.initials: EJ
authors.lastname: Foster
authors.affiliation: Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700, Fribourg, Switzerland.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Petri-Fink
authors.affiliation: Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700, Fribourg, Switzerland.
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Rothen-Rutishauser
authors.affiliation: Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700, Fribourg, Switzerland.
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Weder
authors.affiliation: Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, 1700, Fribourg, Switzerland. m.j.d.clift@swansea.ac.uk.|In Vitro Toxicology Group, Swansea University Medical School, Singleton Park Campus, Swansea, SA2 8PP, Wales, UK. m.j.d.clift@swansea.ac.uk.
authors.forename: M J D
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Clift
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002460:Cell Line; D002470:Cell Survival / Q000187:drug effects; D002482:Cellulose / Q000737:chemistry*; D006801:Humans; D008264:Macrophages / Q000166:cytology / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D057139:Nanofibers / Q000737:chemistry; D053758:Nanoparticles / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000633:toxicity; D018384:Oxidative Stress / Q000187:drug effects
chemical_list: D002482:Cellulose
keywords: Cellulose nanocrystals; Exposure; Hazard; Human health; Nano-object-cell interactions; Nanocellulose; Nanofibers; Nanotoxicology; Risk