title: Inflammatory processes in cardiovascular disease: a route to targeted therapies.
abstract: Inflammatory processes are firmly established as central to the development and complications of cardiovascular diseases. Elevated levels of inflammatory markers have been shown to be predictive of future cardiovascular events. The specific targeting of these processes in experimental models has been shown to attenuate myocardial and arterial injury, reduce disease progression, and promote healing. However, the translation of these observations and the demonstration of clear efficacy in clinical practice have been disappointing. A major limitation might be that tools currently used to measure 'inflammation' are insufficiently precise and do not provide information about disease site and activity, or discriminate between functionally important activation pathways. The challenge, therefore, is to make measures of inflammation that are more meaningful, and which can guide specific targeted therapies. In this Review, we consider the roles of inflammatory processes in the related pathologies of atherosclerosis and acute myocardial infarction, by providing an evaluation of the known and emerging inflammatory pathways. We highlight contemporary techniques to characterize and quantify inflammation, and consider how they might be used to guide specific treatments. Finally, we discuss emerging opportunities in the field, including their current limitations and challenges that are the focus of ongoing study.
authors.affiliation: Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Headley Way, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK.
authors.forename: Neil
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Ruparelia
authors.affiliation: Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Headley Way, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK.|Acute Vascular Imaging Centre, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headley Way, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK.
authors.forename: Joshua T
authors.initials: JT
authors.lastname: Chai
authors.affiliation: Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Headley Way, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK.|The Center for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and the Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York, New York 10016, USA.
authors.forename: Edward A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Fisher
authors.affiliation: Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Headley Way, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK.|Acute Vascular Imaging Centre, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headley Way, Oxford, OX3 9DU, UK.
authors.forename: Robin P
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Choudhury
mesh_terms: D050197:Atherosclerosis / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000276:immunology / Q000503:physiopathology; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000032:analysis*; D055808:Drug Discovery; D006801:Humans; D007249:Inflammation / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000276:immunology / Q000503:physiopathology; D009203:Myocardial Infarction / Q000276:immunology / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000517:prevention & control
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers