title: Unravelling cardiovascular disease using four dimensional flow cardiovascular magnetic resonance.
abstract: Knowledge of normal and abnormal flow patterns in the human cardiovascular system increases our understanding of normal physiology and may help unravel the complex pathophysiological mechanisms leading to cardiovascular disease. Four-dimensional (4D) flow cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) has emerged as a suitable technique that enables visualization of in vivo blood flow patterns and quantification of parameters that could potentially be of prognostic value in the disease process. In this review, current image processing tools that are used for comprehensive visualization and quantification of blood flow and energy distribution in the heart and great vessels will be discussed. Also, imaging biomarkers extracted from 4D flow CMR will be reviewed that have been shown to distinguish between normal and abnormal flow patterns. Furthermore, current applications of 4D flow CMR in the heart and great vessels will be discussed, showing its potential as an additional diagnostic modality which could aid in disease management and timing of surgical intervention.
authors.affiliation: Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.|Netherlands Heart Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Vivian P
authors.initials: VP
authors.lastname: Kamphuis
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands. j.j.m.westenberg@lumc.nl.
authors.forename: Jos J M
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1946-1715
authors.initials: JJM
authors.lastname: Westenberg
authors.affiliation: Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Roel L F
authors.initials: RLF
authors.lastname: van der Palen
authors.affiliation: Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Nico A
authors.initials: NA
authors.lastname: Blom
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Albert
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: de Roos
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Rob
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: van der Geest
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Mohammed S M
authors.initials: MSM
authors.lastname: Elbaz
authors.affiliation: Division of Pediatric Cardiology, Department of Pediatrics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Arno A W
authors.initials: AAW
authors.lastname: Roest
mesh_terms: D001783:Blood Flow Velocity; D003326:Coronary Circulation; D003331:Coronary Vessels / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000503:physiopathology; D006331:Heart Diseases / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000503:physiopathology; D006801:Humans; D007090:Image Interpretation, Computer-Assisted; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D055414:Myocardial Perfusion Imaging / Q000379:methods*; D011237:Predictive Value of Tests; D011379:Prognosis; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012720:Severity of Illness Index
keywords: 4-Dimensional flow; Blood flow; Cardiovascular magnetic resonance; Velocity