title: Dietary quality of the US child and adolescent population: trends from 1999 to 2012 and associations with the use of federal nutrition assistance programs.
abstract: The state of the economy, changes in federal food assistance programs, and policies related to nutrition and the food supply in the United States may influence dietary quality in children and adolescents.
  
  
  
  We investigated dietary quality trends from 1999 to 2012 in the US child and adolescent population and their associations with socioeconomic status and participation in federal food assistance programs.
  
  
  
  In this study, a nationally representative sample of 38,487 children and adolescents, aged 2-18 y, in the NHANES from 1999 to 2012 were included. Dietary information was collected with the use of a 24-h dietary recall. Dietary quality was measured with the use of the Healthy Eating Index 2010 (HEI-2010).
  
  
  
  The mean HEI-2010 increased significantly from 42.5 (95% CI: 41.2, 43.8) to 50.9 (95% CI: 50.0, 51.8) from 1999 to 2012 (P-linear trend < 0.001). The reduction in empty calorie intake contributed to greater than one-third of this improvement in the total HEI-2010. We also observed significant increases in 9 other HEI-2010 component scores. However, the HEI-2010 component score for sodium decreased significantly, which reflected an increase in sodium consumption. We calculated the covariate-adjusted mean HEI-2010 score in subgroups that were defined by sociodemographic status and participation in nutrition assistance program at each NHANES cycle. Non-Hispanic black children and adolescents had a consistently lower HEI-2010 than that of other groups across all NHANES cycles. We observed a trend toward a lower HEI-2010 in Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) participants than in nonparticipants after the 2003-2004 cycle. We also observed a lower HEI-2010 in participants in the National School Lunch Program (NSLP) and the School Breakfast Program (SBP) than in nonparticipants. In general, participants in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children appeared to have a higher HEI-2010 than that of nonparticipants.
  
  
  
  Although HEI-2010 scores in children and adolescents improved steadily, the overall dietary quality remained poor. Participants in the SNAP and participants in the National School Lunch Program, School Breakfast Program, or both have lower dietary quality than do nonparticipants. Future policy interventions are needed to continue improvement in dietary quality and to address disparities.
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Brown University; and.
authors.forename: Xiao
authors.identifier: 0000-0003-2497-7695
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Gu
authors.affiliation: Clinical Laboratory and Nutritional Sciences, Center for Population Health, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA katherine_tucker@uml.edu.
authors.forename: Katherine L
authors.identifier: 0000-0001-7640-662X
authors.initials: KL
authors.lastname: Tucker
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D001741:Black or African American; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D004032:Diet / Q000592:standards* / Q000639:trends; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D005260:Female; D063105:Food Assistance; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009753:Nutritive Value; D011203:Poverty; D014481:United States
keywords: Healthy Eating Index; NHANES; National School Lunch Program; Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program; adolescents; children; dietary quality