title: Uncovering the Pathogenic Landscape of Helminth (Opisthorchis viverrini) Infections: A Cross-Sectional Study on Contributions of Physical and Social Environment and Healthcare Interventions.
abstract: Helminth infections have proven recalcitrant to control by chemotherapy in many parts of Southeast Asia and indeed farther afield. This study isolates and examines the influence of different aspects of the physical and social environment, and uneven intervention effort contributing to the pathogenic landscape of human Opisthorchis viverrini infections.
  
  
  
  A cross-sectional survey, involving 632 participants, was conducted in four villages in northeast Thailand to examine the impact on prevalence and parasite burden of the reservoir dam environment, socio-economic, demographic, and behavioral factors, and health center intervention efforts. Formalin-ether concentration technique was used for diagnoses, and multivariate models were used for analyses.
  
  
  
  The importance attributed to O. viverrini infections varied among health centers in the four study villages. Villages where O. viverrini infections were not prioritized by the health centers as the healthcare focus were at a higher risk of infection (prevalence) with odds ratio (risk factor) of 5.73 (3.32-10.27) and p-value < 0.01. Priority of healthcare focus, however, did not appear to influence behavior, as the consumption of raw fish, the main source of O. viverrini infections in the study area, was 11.4% higher in villages that prioritized O. viverrini infections than those that did not (p-value = 0.01). Landscape variation, notably proximity to reservoir, affects vulnerability of local population to infection. Infection intensity was higher in population located closer to the reservoir with risk ratio of 2.09 (1.12-4.02) and p-value < 0.01. Patterns of infection intensities among humans were found to match fish infection intensity, where higher infection intensities were associated with fish obtained from the reservoir waterbody type (p-value = 0.023).
  
  
  
  This study demonstrated the importance of environmental influence and healthcare focus as risk factors of infections in addition to the socio-economic, demographic, and behavioral factors commonly explored in existing studies. The reservoir was identified as a crucial source to target for opisthorchiasis intervention efforts and the need to consider infection intensity in disease control efforts was highlighted. The holistic approach in this study, which underscores the close relationship between the environment, animals, and humans in development of human infections or diseases, is an important contribution to the framework of One Health approach, where consideration of helminth diseases has largely been overlooked.
authors.affiliation: Department of Geography, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
authors.forename: Xueyuan
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Ong
authors.affiliation: Department of Geography, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
authors.forename: Yi-Chen
authors.identifier: 0000-0002-3034-7377
authors.initials: YC
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.affiliation: Department of Parasitology, Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
authors.forename: Paiboon
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Sithithaworn
authors.affiliation: Department of Parasitology, Khon Kaen University, Thailand.
authors.forename: Jutamas
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Namsanor
authors.affiliation: Department of Geography, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Taylor
authors.affiliation: Disease Prevention and Control 7, Khon Kaen, Thailand.
authors.forename: Luxana
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Laithavewat
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000818:Animals; D003695:Delivery of Health Care / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D005260:Female; D005399:Fishes / Q000469:parasitology; D005506:Food Contamination / Q000032:analysis; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009889:Opisthorchiasis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000469:parasitology* / Q000523:psychology; D009891:Opisthorchis / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification* / Q000472:pathogenicity / Q000502:physiology; D015995:Prevalence; D017747:Seafood / Q000469:parasitology*; D012931:Social Environment; D013785:Thailand / Q000453:epidemiology; D055815:Young Adult