title: Implicit and explicit motor sequence learning in children born very preterm.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Motor skills can be learned explicitly (dependent on working memory (WM)) or implicitly (relatively independent of WM). Children born very preterm (VPT) often have working memory deficits. Explicit learning may be compromised in these children.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This study investigated implicit and explicit motor learning and the role of working memory in VPT children and controls.
  
  
  METHODS
  Three groups (6-9 years) participated: 20 VPT children with motor problems, 20 VPT children without motor problems, and 20 controls. A nine button sequence was learned implicitly (pressing the lighted button as quickly as possible) and explicitly (discovering the sequence via trial-and-error).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Children learned implicitly and explicitly, evidenced by decreased movement duration of the sequence over time. In the explicit condition, children also reduced the number of errors over time. Controls made more errors than VPT children without motor problems. Visual WM had positive effects on both explicit and implicit performance.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  VPT birth and low motor proficiency did not negatively affect implicit or explicit learning. Visual WM was positively related to both implicit and explicit performance, but did not influence learning curves. These findings question the theoretical difference between implicit and explicit learning and the proposed role of visual WM therein.
authors.affiliation: Radboud University Nijmegen, Behavioural Science Institute, PO Box 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Electronic address: m.jongbloed-pereboom@pwo.ru.nl.
authors.forename: Marjolein
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Jongbloed-Pereboom
authors.affiliation: Radboud University Medical Center, Donders Centre for Neuroscience, Department of Rehabilitation, Pediatric Physical Therapy, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Electronic address: Anjo.Janssen@radboudumc.nl.
authors.forename: Anjo J W M
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Janssen
authors.affiliation: Radboud University Medical Center, Department of Pediatrics, Neonatology, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Electronic address: Katerina.Steiner@radboudumc.nl.
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Steiner
authors.affiliation: Radboud University Nijmegen, Behavioural Science Institute, PO Box 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Australian Catholic University, School of Psychology, Melbourne, Australia. Electronic address: b.steenbergen@pwo.ru.nl.
authors.forename: Bert
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Steenbergen
authors.affiliation: Radboud University Medical Center, Radboud Institute for Health Sciences, Scientific Institute for Quality of Healthcare, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Electronic address: ria.nijhuis-vandersanden@radboudumc.nl.
authors.forename: Maria W G
authors.initials: MW
authors.lastname: Nijhuis-van der Sanden
mesh_terms: D016022:Case-Control Studies; D002648:Child; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D062071:Infant, Extremely Premature; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007234:Infant, Premature; D007858:Learning / Q000502:physiology*; D008297:Male; D008570:Memory, Short-Term / Q000502:physiology*; D009048:Motor Skills / Q000502:physiology*
keywords: Explicit; Implicit; Motor learning; Preterm birth; Working memory