title: Simulation of nonlinear propagation of biomedical ultrasound using pzflex and the Khokhlov-Zabolotskaya-Kuznetsov Texas code.
abstract: Nonlinear acoustics plays an important role in both diagnostic and therapeutic applications of biomedical ultrasound and a number of research and commercial software packages are available. In this manuscript, predictions of two solvers available in a commercial software package, pzflex, one using the finite-element-method (FEM) and the other a pseudo-spectral method, spectralflex, are compared with measurements and the Khokhlov-Zabolotskaya-Kuznetsov (KZK) Texas code (a finite-difference time-domain algorithm). The pzflex methods solve the continuity equation, momentum equation and equation of state where they account for nonlinearity to second order whereas the KZK code solves a nonlinear wave equation with a paraxial approximation for diffraction. Measurements of the field from a single element 3.3 MHz focused transducer were compared with the simulations and there was good agreement for the fundamental frequency and the harmonics; however the FEM pzflex solver incurred a high computational cost to achieve equivalent accuracy. In addition, pzflex results exhibited non-physical oscillations in the spatial distribution of harmonics when the amplitudes were relatively low. It was found that spectralflex was able to accurately capture the nonlinear fields at reasonable computational cost. These results emphasize the need to benchmark nonlinear simulations before using codes as predictive tools.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Engineering, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Shan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Qiao
authors.affiliation: Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Engineering, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Edward
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Jackson
authors.affiliation: Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Engineering, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Constantin C
authors.initials: CC
authors.lastname: Coussios
authors.affiliation: Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Engineering, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Robin O
authors.initials: RO
authors.lastname: Cleveland
mesh_terms: D000162:Acoustics; D000465:Algorithms; D003198:Computer Simulation; D017711:Nonlinear Dynamics; D014465:Ultrasonics