title: Bone healing in 2016.
abstract: Delayed fracture healing and nonunion occurs in up to 5-10% of all fractures, and can present a challenging clinical scenario for the treating physician. Methods for the enhancement of skeletal repair may benefit patients that are at risk of, or have experienced, delayed healing or nonunion. These methods can be categorized into either physical stimulation therapies or biological therapies. Physical stimulation therapies include electrical stimulation, low-intensity pulsed ultrasonography, or extracorporeal shock wave therapy. Biological therapies can be further classified into local or systemic therapy based on the method of delivery. Local methods include autologous bone marrow, autologous bone graft, fibroblast growth factor-2, platelet-rich plasma, platelet-derived growth factor, and bone morphogenetic proteins. Systemic therapies include parathyroid hormone and bisphosphonates. This article reviews the current applications and supporting evidence for the use of these therapies in the enhancement of fracture healing.
authors.affiliation: NYU Langone Medical Center Hospital for Joint Diseases, New York, USA.
authors.forename: John A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Buza
authors.affiliation: NYU Langone Medical Center Hospital for Joint Diseases, New York, USA.
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Einhorn
keywords: bone defects; fracture; growth factors; healing; nonunion