title: Biliary Secretion of Quasi-Enveloped Human Hepatitis A Virus.
abstract: Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is an unusual picornavirus that is released from cells cloaked in host-derived membranes. These quasi-enveloped virions (eHAV) are the only particle type circulating in blood during infection, whereas only nonenveloped virions are shed in feces. The reason for this is uncertain. Hepatocytes, the only cell type known to support HAV replication in vivo, are highly polarized epithelial cells with basolateral membranes facing onto hepatic (blood) sinusoids and apical membranes abutting biliary canaliculi from which bile is secreted to the gut. To assess whether eHAV and nonenveloped virus egress from cells via vectorially distinct pathways, we studied infected polarized cultures of Caco-2 and HepG2-N6 cells. Most (>99%) progeny virions were released apically from Caco-2 cells, whereas basolateral (64%) versus apical (36%) release was more balanced with HepG2-N6 cells. Both apically and basolaterally released virions were predominantly enveloped, with no suggestion of differential vectorial release of eHAV versus naked virions. Basolateral to apical transcytosis of either particle type was minimal (<0.02%/h) in HepG2-N6 cells, arguing against this as a mechanism for differences in membrane envelopment of serum versus fecal virus. High concentrations of human bile acids converted eHAV to nonenveloped virions, whereas virus present in bile from HAV-infected Ifnar1-/-Ifngr1-/-and Mavs-/-mice banded over a range of densities extending from that of eHAV to that of nonenveloped virions. We conclude that nonenveloped virions shed in feces are derived from eHAV released across the canalicular membrane and stripped of membranes by the detergent action of bile acids within the proximal biliary canaliculus.
  
  
  
  HAV is a hepatotropic, fecally/orally transmitted picornavirus that can cause severe hepatitis in humans. Recent work reveals that it has an unusual life cycle. Virus is found in cell culture supernatant fluids in two mature, infectious forms: one wrapped in membranes (quasi-enveloped) and another that is nonenveloped. Membrane-wrapped virions circulate in blood during acute infection and are resistant to neutralizing antibodies, likely facilitating HAV dissemination within the liver. On the other hand, virus shed in feces is nonenveloped and highly stable, facilitating epidemic spread and transmission to naive hosts. Factors controlling the biogenesis of these two distinct forms of the virus in infected humans are not understood. Here we characterize vectorial release of quasi-enveloped virions from polarized epithelial cell cultures and provide evidence that bile acids strip membranes from eHAV following its secretion into the biliary tract. These results enhance our understanding of the life cycle of this unusual picornavirus.
authors.affiliation: Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.|Department of Microbiology & Immunology, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
authors.forename: Asuka
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hirai-Yuki
authors.affiliation: Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
authors.forename: Lucinda
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Hensley
authors.affiliation: Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.|Department of Genetics, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
authors.forename: Jason K
authors.initials: JK
authors.lastname: Whitmire
authors.affiliation: Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA smlemon@med.unc.edu.|Department of Microbiology & Immunology, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.|Department of Medicine, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.
authors.forename: Stanley M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Lemon
mesh_terms: D001647:Bile Acids and Salts / Q000378:metabolism; D001659:Biliary Tract / Q000821:virology*; D018938:Caco-2 Cells; D003902:Detergents / Q000378:metabolism*; D004847:Epithelial Cells / Q000821:virology; D056945:Hep G2 Cells; D017957:Hepatitis A Virus, Human / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000502:physiology*; D022781:Hepatocytes / Q000821:virology; D006801:Humans; D044967:Serum / Q000821:virology*; D019065:Virus Assembly
chemical_list: D001647:Bile Acids and Salts; D003902:Detergents