title: Risk and Ambiguity in Information Seeking: Eye Gaze Patterns Reveal Contextual Behavior in Dealing with Uncertainty.
abstract: Information foraging connects optimal foraging theory in ecology with how humans search for information. The theory suggests that, following an information scent, the information seeker must optimize the tradeoff between exploration by repeated steps in the search space vs. exploitation, using the resources encountered. We conjecture that this tradeoff characterizes how a user deals with uncertainty and its two aspects, risk and ambiguity in economic theory. Risk is related to the perceived quality of the actually visited patch of information, and can be reduced by exploiting and understanding the patch to a better extent. Ambiguity, on the other hand, is the opportunity cost of having higher quality patches elsewhere in the search space. The aforementioned tradeoff depends on many attributes, including traits of the user: at the two extreme ends of the spectrum, analytic and wholistic searchers employ entirely different strategies. The former type focuses on exploitation first, interspersed with bouts of exploration, whereas the latter type prefers to explore the search space first and consume later. Our findings from an eye-tracking study of experts' interactions with novel search interfaces in the biomedical domain suggest that user traits of cognitive styles and perceived search task difficulty are significantly correlated with eye gaze and search behavior. We also demonstrate that perceived risk shifts the balance between exploration and exploitation in either type of users, tilting it against vs. in favor of ambiguity minimization. Since the pattern of behavior in information foraging is quintessentially sequential, risk and ambiguity minimization cannot happen simultaneously, leading to a fundamental limit on how good such a tradeoff can be. This in turn connects information seeking with the emergent field of quantum decision theory.
authors.affiliation: Instituto de Ciencias Fotónicas-The Institute of Photonic Sciences, Barcelona Institute of Science and TechnologyBarcelona, Spain; Swedish School of Library and Information Science, University of BoråsBorås, Sweden.
authors.forename: Peter
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Wittek
authors.affiliation: School of Information Studies, Charles Sturt UniversityWagga Wagga, NSW, Australia; Research School of Computer Science, Human-Centered Computing, The Australian National UniversityActon, ACT, Australia.
authors.forename: Ying-Hsang
authors.initials: YH
authors.lastname: Liu
authors.affiliation: Swedish School of Library and Information Science, University of Borås Borås, Sweden.
authors.forename: Sándor
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Darányi
authors.affiliation: Research School of Computer Science, Human-Centered Computing, The Australian National University Acton, ACT, Australia.
authors.forename: Tom
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Gedeon
authors.affiliation: School of Computer Science, Bangor University Bangor, UK.
authors.forename: Ik Soo
authors.initials: IS
authors.lastname: Lim
keywords: cognitive style; eye gaze; information foraging; information seeking; quantum decision theory; risk and ambiguity minimization