title: Characterization and risk of exposure to elements from artisanal gold mining operations in the Bolivian Andes.
abstract: Artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) offers low-skilled workers an opportunity to elevate themselves out of poverty. However, this industry operates with little to no pollution controls and the cost to the environment and human health can be large. The objectives of this study were to measure levels of arsenic (As), manganese (Mn), cobalt (Co), lead (Pb), and mercury (Hg) in the environment and characterize health risks to miners and residents in an area with active ASGM operations. An exposure assessment was conducted at two different mining sites and a nearby village in the Bolivian Anders. The resulting measurements were then used to quantify cancerous and noncancerous health risks to children and adults working at and living near ASGM areas. Soil concentrations of As were well above background levels and showed great variations between the village and mining area. Mercury vapor levels at the two mining sites were approximately 30 times larger than the EPA reference concentration. The risk of developing non-cancerous health effects were primarily due to exposure to As and Hg. The probability of individuals developing cancer was considerably increased with adult miners having a probability of 1.3 out of 100. Cancer potential was driven by exposure to As, with de minimus cancer risk from all other elements. Based on the environmental characterization of elements in soils and Hg vapors, the risk of developing cancerous and non-cancerous health outcomes were above a level of concern based on EPA risk assessment guidance. Personal protective equipment was not worn by workers and Hg amalgam is commonly heated in workers' homes. Better education of the risks of ASGM is needed as well as simple controls to reduce exposure.
authors.affiliation: City University of New York School of Public Health, 55 W 125th St, New York, NY 10027, USA. Electronic address: Brian.pavilonis@sph.cuny.edu.
authors.forename: Brian
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Pavilonis
authors.affiliation: City University of New York School of Public Health, 55 W 125th St, New York, NY 10027, USA.
authors.forename: Jean
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Grassman
authors.affiliation: City University of New York School of Public Health, 55 W 125th St, New York, NY 10027, USA.
authors.forename: Glen
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Johnson
authors.affiliation: City University of New York School of Public Health, 55 W 125th St, New York, NY 10027, USA.
authors.forename: Yilmael
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Diaz
authors.affiliation: City University of New York School of Public Health, 55 W 125th St, New York, NY 10027, USA.
authors.forename: Jack
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Caravanos
mesh_terms: D000280:Administration, Inhalation; D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000032:analysis; D000395:Air Pollutants, Occupational / Q000032:analysis; D001151:Arsenic / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D001838:Bolivia; D002273:Carcinogens / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D002648:Child; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000032:analysis*; D006801:Humans; D008628:Mercury / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D008670:Metals / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity; D008906:Mining / Q000379:methods*; D016273:Occupational Exposure / Q000032:analysis*; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012867:Skin / Q000187:drug effects; D012989:Soil Pollutants / Q000032:analysis
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D000395:Air Pollutants, Occupational; D002273:Carcinogens; D008670:Metals; D012989:Soil Pollutants; D008628:Mercury; D001151:Arsenic
keywords: Arsenic exposure; Artisanal gold mining; Mercury exposure; Metal exposure; Risk assessment; Small scale gold mining