title: Presence of Clostridium difficile in pig faecal samples and wild animal species associated with pig farms.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To determine the presence of Clostridium difficile on fattening pig farms in north-eastern Spain.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Twenty-seven farms were sampled. Pools of pig faecal samples (n = 210), samples of intestinal content from common farm pest species (n = 95) and environment-related samples (n = 93) were collected. Isolates were tested for toxin genes of C. difficile, and typed by PCR-ribotyping and toxinotyping. The minimal inhibitory concentrations of six antimicrobial agents were determined using Etest. Thirty-four isolates were obtained from 12 farms, and 30 (88·2%) had toxin genes. Seven ribotypes were identified. Ribotype 078 and its variant 126 were predominant (52·9%). The same ribotypes were isolated from different animal species on the same farm. None of the isolates were resistant to metronidazole or vancomycin.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Clostridium difficile was common within the pig farm environment. Most of the positive samples came from pest species or were pest-related environmental samples.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Pest species were colonized with toxigenic and antimicrobial-resistant C. difficile strains of the same ribotypes that are found in humans and pigs. Rodents and pigeons may transmit toxigenic and antimicrobial-resistant C. difficile strains that are of the same ribotypes as those occuring in humans.
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Andrés-Lasheras
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain.
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Bolea
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain.
authors.forename: R C
authors.initials: RC
authors.lastname: Mainar-Jaime
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology, Centre of Infectious Diseases, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Kuijper
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Patología Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain.
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Sevilla
authors.affiliation: Laboratorio de Genética Bioquímica (LAGENBIO), Facultad de Veterinaria, Instituto Agroalimentario de Aragón-IA2-(Universidad de Zaragoza-CITA), Zaragoza, Spain.
authors.forename: I
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Martín-Burriel
authors.affiliation: Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Chirino-Trejo
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000835:Animals, Wild; D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000494:pharmacology*; D016360:Clostridioides difficile / Q000145:classification / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D003015:Clostridium Infections / Q000635:transmission* / Q000662:veterinary; D000072480:Farms; D005243:Feces / Q000382:microbiology*; D006801:Humans; D008795:Metronidazole / Q000494:pharmacology; D008826:Microbial Sensitivity Tests; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction; D021521:Ribotyping; D013030:Spain; D034421:Sus scrofa
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents; D008795:Metronidazole
keywords: 
  Clostridium difficile
  ; PCR-ribotyping; environment; pig; rodents; toxins; wildlife