title: Psychometric properties of the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS): measurement invariance between athletes and non-athletes and construct validity.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Although Perceived Stress Scale (PSS, Cohen, Kamarack & Mermelstein, 1983) has been validated and widely used in many domains, there is still no validation in sports by comparing athletes and non-athletes and examining related psychometric indices.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The purpose of this study was to examine the measurement invariance of PSS between athletes and non-athletes, and examine construct validity and reliability in the sports contexts.
  
  
  METHODS
  Study 1 sampled 359 college student-athletes (males = 233; females = 126) and 242 non-athletes (males = 124; females = 118) and examined factorial structure, measurement invariance and internal consistency. Study 2 sampled 196 student-athletes (males = 139, females = 57,Mage= 19.88 yrs, SD = 1.35) and examined discriminant validity and convergent validity of PSS. Study 3 sampled 37 student-athletes to assess test-retest reliability of PSS.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Results found that 2-factor PSS-10 fitted the model the best and had appropriate reliability. Also, there was a measurement invariance between athletes and non-athletes; and PSS positively correlated with athletic burnout and life stress but negatively correlated with coping efficacy provided evidence of discriminant validity and convergent validity. Further, the test-retest reliability for PSS subscales was significant (r= .66 andr= .50).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  It is suggested that 2-factor PSS-10 can be a useful tool in assessing perceived stress either in sports or non-sports settings. We suggest future study may use 2-factor PSS-10 in examining the effects of stress on the athletic injury, burnout, and psychiatry disorders.
authors.affiliation: Graduate Institute of Physical Education, National Taiwan Sport University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Yi-Hsiang
authors.initials: YH
authors.lastname: Chiu
authors.affiliation: Graduate Institute of Sport Coaching Science, Chinese Culture University, Taipei, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Frank Jing-Horng
authors.initials: FJ
authors.lastname: Lu
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Education and Kinesiology, National Dong Hwa University, Hua Lien, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Ju-Han
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Lin
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Education, National Taiwan University of Sport, Taichung, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Chiao-Lin
authors.initials: CL
authors.lastname: Nien
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Education, Health, and Recreation, National Chia-Yi University, Chia-Yi, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Ya-Wen
authors.initials: YW
authors.lastname: Hsu
authors.affiliation: Department of Exercise and Health Promotion, Chinese Culture University, Taipei, Taiwan.
authors.forename: Hong-Yu
authors.initials: HY
authors.lastname: Liu
keywords: Cognitive-transactional model of stress; Multiple group comparisons; Nested model; Perceived coping