title: Lethal Synergism between Influenza andStreptococcus pneumoniae.
abstract: The devastating synergism of bacterial pneumonia with influenza viral infections left its mark on the world over the last century. Although the details of pathogenesis remain unclear, the synergism is related to a variety of factors including pulmonary epithelial barrier damage which exposes receptors that influence bacterial adherence and the triggering of an exaggerated innate immune response and cytokine storm, which further acts to worsen the injury. Several therapeutics and combination therapies of antibiotics, anti-inflammatories including corticosteroids and toll-like receptor modifiers, and anti-virals are being discussed. This mini review summarizes recent developments in unearthing the pathogenesis of the lethal synergism of pneumococcal co-infection following influenza, as well as addresses potential therapeutic options and combinations of therapies currently being evaluated.
authors.affiliation: Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, OK, USA.
authors.forename: Jennifer M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Rudd
authors.affiliation: Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, OK, USA.
authors.forename: Harshini K
authors.initials: HK
authors.lastname: Ashar
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
authors.forename: Vincent Tk
authors.initials: VT
authors.lastname: Chow
authors.affiliation: Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, OK, USA.
authors.forename: Narasaraju
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Teluguakula
keywords: Bacterial co-infection; Influenza; Pathogenesis; Streptococcus pneumoniae; Therapeutics