title: Toward a Principled Sampling Theory for Quasi-Orders.
abstract: Quasi-orders, that is, reflexive and transitive binary relations, have numerous applications. In educational theories, the dependencies of mastery among the problems of a test can be modeled by quasi-orders. Methods such as item tree or Boolean analysis that mine for quasi-orders in empirical data are sensitive to the underlying quasi-order structure. These data mining techniques have to be compared based on extensive simulation studies, with unbiased samples of randomly generated quasi-orders at their basis. In this paper, we develop techniques that can provide the required quasi-order samples. We introduce a discrete doubly inductive procedure for incrementally constructing the set of all quasi-orders on a finite item set. A randomization of this deterministic procedure allows us to generate representative samples of random quasi-orders. With an outer level inductive algorithm, we consider the uniform random extensions of the trace quasi-orders to higher dimension. This is combined with an inner level inductive algorithm to correct the extensions that violate the transitivity property. The inner level correction step entails sampling biases. We propose three algorithms for bias correction and investigate them in simulation. It is evident that, on even up to 50 items, the new algorithms create close to representative quasi-order samples within acceptable computing time. Hence, the principled approach is a significant improvement to existing methods that are used to draw quasi-orders uniformly at random but cannot cope with reasonably large item sets.
authors.affiliation: Centre for International Student Assessment, Technical University of Munich Munich, Germany.
authors.forename: Ali
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ünlü
authors.affiliation: SAP AG Walldorf, Germany.
authors.forename: Martin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Schrepp
keywords: absolute rejection; discrete doubly inductive quasi-order construction; item tree analysis; knowledge or learning space theory; representative random quasi-order; resampling; simple random sampling; stratified sampling