title: Improvement of the detection efficiency calibration and homogeneity measurement of Si-SPAD detectors.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Silicon single-photon avalanche diodes (Si-SPADs) are the most used devices for measuring ultra-weak optical radiant fluxes in many quantum technology fields, such as quantum optics, quantum communication, quantum computing, etc. In all these fields, the detection efficiency is the main parameter, which has to be accurately known for achieving reliable measurements. In this paper we present the improvements performed on the setup described in López et al. (J Mod Opt 62:S21-S27, 2015) for determining the detection efficiency of Si-SPAD detectors with a low measurement uncertainty. The improvement arises from the precise alignment of the Si-SPAD detector and the low deviation reached between the total calculated filter transmission and the individual filter transmission measurements (≤0.05%) performed with an integrating sphere with attached Si-photodiode as standard detector.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The relative standard uncertainty of the Si-SPAD detection efficiency measurement achieved is now as low as ~0.16%. Furthermore, the investigation of the detection efficiency homogeneity of two commercial Si-SPAD detectors from different manufacturers and with different sensor diameters is also presented. The obtained homogeneity is ≤2.2% within a region of diameter of 40 μm.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The detailed analysis presented in this paper shows the potential for achieving low measurement uncertainties for Si-SPAD detector calibration even in the low photon flux range. The low uncertainties are only to be realized for reproducible measurement conditions, i.e. in specific for equal beam sizes and beam shapes and well as for an irradiation of equal active areas of the detector. This, however, will be difficult to obtain when measurements are performed at different national metrology institutes.
authors.affiliation: Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia.
authors.forename: Klodian
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Dhoska
authors.affiliation: Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), Bundesallee 100, 38116 Brunswick, Germany.
authors.forename: Helmuth
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Hofer
authors.affiliation: Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), Bundesallee 100, 38116 Brunswick, Germany.
authors.forename: Beatrice
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Rodiek
authors.affiliation: Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), Bundesallee 100, 38116 Brunswick, Germany.
authors.forename: Marco
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: López
authors.affiliation: Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, Estonia ; AS Metrosert, Teaduspargi 8, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia.
authors.forename: Toomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Kübarsepp
authors.affiliation: Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), Bundesallee 100, 38116 Brunswick, Germany.
authors.forename: Stefan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Kück
keywords: Alignment; Detection efficiency; Homogeneity; Integrating sphere; Si-SPAD detector