title: Desert pastoralists' negative and positive effects on rare wildlife in the Gobi.
abstract: In arid regions of the developing world, pastoralists and livestock commonly inhabit protected areas, resulting in human-wildlife conflict. Conflict is inextricably linked to the ecological processes shaping relationships between pastoralists and native herbivores and carnivores. To elucidate relationships underpinning human-wildlife conflict, we synthesized 15 years of ecological and ethnographic data from Ikh Nart Nature Reserve in Mongolia's Gobi steppe. The density of argali (Ovis ammon), the world's largest wild sheep, at Ikh Nart was among the highest in Mongolia, yet livestock were >90% of ungulate biomass and dogs >90% of large-carnivore biomass. For argali, pastoral activities decreased food availability, increased mortality from dog predation, and potentially increased disease risk. Isotope analyses indicated that livestock accounted for >50% of the diet of the majority of gray wolves (Canis lupus) and up to 90% of diet in 25% of sampled wolves (n = 8). Livestock composed at least 96% of ungulate prey in the single wolf pack for which we collected species-specific prey data. Interviews with pastoralists indicated that wolves annually killed 1-4% of Ikh Nart's livestock, and pastoralists killed wolves in retribution. Pastoralists reduced wolf survival by killing them, but their livestock were an abundant food source for wolves. Consequently, wolf density appeared to be largely decoupled from argali density, and pastoralists had indirect effects on argali that could be negative if pastoralists increased wolf density (apparent competition) or positive if pastoralists decreased wolf predation (apparent facilitation). Ikh Nart's argali population was stable despite these threats, but livestock are increasingly dominant numerically and functionally relative to argali. To support both native wildlife and pastoral livelihoods, we suggest training dogs to not kill argali, community insurance against livestock losses to wolves, reintroducing key native prey species to hotspots of human-wolf conflict, and developing incentives for pastoralists to reduce livestock density.
authors.affiliation: Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana, Forestry 312, 32 Campus Drive, Missoula, MT, 59812, U.S.A.|Denver Zoological Foundation, Conservation and Research Department, 2300 Steele Street, Denver, CO, 80205, U.S.A.
authors.forename: L Stefan
authors.initials: LS
authors.lastname: Ekernas
authors.affiliation: Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana, Forestry 312, 32 Campus Drive, Missoula, MT, 59812, U.S.A.
authors.forename: Wesley M
authors.initials: WM
authors.lastname: Sarmento
authors.affiliation: School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Burton Street, Nottingham, NG1, 4BU, U.K.
authors.forename: Hannah S
authors.initials: HS
authors.lastname: Davie
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology & Graduate School of Social Work, University of Denver, 2148 South High Street, Denver, CO, 80208, U.S.A.
authors.forename: Richard P
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Reading
authors.affiliation: Rubenstein School of Environment and Natural Resources, University of Vermont, Aiken Center, 81 Carrigan Drive, Burlington, VT, 05405, U.S.A.
authors.forename: James
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Murdoch
authors.affiliation: Denver Zoological Foundation, Conservation and Research Department, 2300 Steele Street, Denver, CO, 80205, U.S.A.
authors.forename: Ganchimeg J
authors.initials: GJ
authors.lastname: Wingard
authors.affiliation: Argali Wildlife Research Center, Ulaanbaatar, 14251, Mongolia.
authors.forename: Sukh
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Amgalanbaatar
authors.affiliation: Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, NY, 10460, U.S.A.|Fisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, 1474 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, U.S.A.
authors.forename: Joel
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Berger
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000835:Animals, Wild; D003247:Conservation of Natural Resources; D004285:Dogs; D006801:Humans; D058751:Livestock; D008986:Mongolia; D011157:Population Dynamics; D011235:Predatory Behavior; D012756:Sheep; D019596:Wolves
keywords: Mongolia; argali; conflicto humano-vida silvestre; ganado; human-wildlife conflict; livestock; lobos; pastoralism; pastoreo; wolves