title: The HK2 Dependent "Warburg Effect" and Mitochondrial Oxidative Phosphorylation in Cancer: Targets for Effective Therapy with 3-Bromopyruvate.
abstract: This review summarizes the current state of knowledge about the metabolism of cancer cells, especially with respect to the "Warburg" and "Crabtree" effects. This work also summarizes two key discoveries, one of which relates to hexokinase-2 (HK2), a major player in both the "Warburg effect" and cancer cell immortalization. The second discovery relates to the finding that cancer cells, unlike normal cells, derive as much as 60% of their ATP from glycolysis via the "Warburg effect", and the remaining 40% is derived from mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. Also described are selected anticancer agents which generally act as strong energy blockers inside cancer cells. Among them, much attention has focused on 3-bromopyruvate (3BP). This small alkylating compound targets both the "Warburg effect", i.e., elevated glycolysis even in the presence oxygen, as well as mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation in cancer cells. Normal cells remain unharmed. 3BP rapidly kills cancer cells growing in tissue culture, eradicates tumors in animals, and prevents metastasis. In addition, properly formulated 3BP shows promise also as an effective anti-liver cancer agent in humans and is effective also toward cancers known as "multiple myeloma". Finally, 3BP has been shown to significantly extend the life of a human patient for which no other options were available. Thus, it can be stated that 3BP is a very promising new anti-cancer agent in the process of undergoing clinical development.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Wroclaw, Przybyszewskiego Street, 51-148 Wroclaw, Poland. p.lis@dundee.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Paweł
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Lis
authors.affiliation: Institute of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Wroclaw, Przybyszewskiego Street, 51-148 Wroclaw, Poland. mariusz.dylag@uwr.edu.pl.
authors.forename: Mariusz
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Dyląg
authors.affiliation: Institute of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Wroclaw, Przybyszewskiego Street, 51-148 Wroclaw, Poland. katarzyna.niedzwiecka@uwr.edu.pl.
authors.forename: Katarzyna
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Niedźwiecka
authors.affiliation: KoDiscovery, LLC, UM BioPark, Suite 502 E&F, 801 West Baltimore Street, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA. kocancer212@yahoo.com.
authors.forename: Young H
authors.initials: YH
authors.lastname: Ko
authors.affiliation: Departments of Biological Chemistry and Oncology and member at large Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205-2185, USA. ppederse@jhmi.edu.
authors.forename: Peter L
authors.initials: PL
authors.lastname: Pedersen
authors.affiliation: Institut des Sciences de la Vie, Université Catholique de Louvain, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium. agoffeau@hotmail.com.
authors.forename: Andre
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Goffeau
authors.affiliation: Institute of Genetics and Microbiology, University of Wroclaw, Przybyszewskiego Street, 51-148 Wroclaw, Poland. stanislaw.ulaszewski@uwr.edu.pl.
authors.forename: Stanisław
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Ułaszewski
mesh_terms: D000970:Antineoplastic Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D004734:Energy Metabolism / Q000187:drug effects*; D006019:Glycolysis / Q000187:drug effects*; D006593:Hexokinase / Q000378:metabolism*; D006801:Humans; D008113:Liver Neoplasms / Q000188:drug therapy; D008928:Mitochondria / Q000378:metabolism; D009101:Multiple Myeloma / Q000188:drug therapy; D010085:Oxidative Phosphorylation / Q000187:drug effects*; D011773:Pyruvates / Q000627:therapeutic use*
chemical_list: D000970:Antineoplastic Agents; D011773:Pyruvates; C017092:bromopyruvate; D006593:Hexokinase
keywords: 3-bromopyruvate; Crabtree effect; Warburg effect; antitumor therapy; buthionine sulphoximine; glutathione; oxidative phosphorylation