title: Paradigm Shifts in Ophthalmic Diagnostics.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Future advances in ophthalmology will see a paradigm shift in diagnostics from a focus on dysfunction and disease to better measures of psychophysical function and health. Practical methods to define genotypes will be increasingly important and non-invasive nanotechnologies are needed to detect molecular changes that predate histopathology.
  
  
  METHODS
  This is not a review nor meant to be comprehensive. Specific topics have been selected to illustrate the principles of important paradigm shifts that will influence the future of ophthalmic diagnostics. It is our impression that future evaluation of vision will go beyond visual acuity to assess ocular health in terms of psychophysical function. The definition of disease will incorporate genotype into what has historically been a phenotype-centric discipline. Non-invasive nanotechnologies will enable a paradigm shift from disease detection on a cellular level to a sub-cellular molecular level.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Vision can be evaluated beyond visual acuity by measuring contrast sensitivity, color vision, and macular function, as these provide better insights into the impact of aging and disease. Distortions can be quantified and the psychophysical basis of vision can be better evaluated than in the past by designing tests that assess particular macular cell function(s). Advances in our understanding of the genetic basis of eye diseases will enable better characterization of ocular health and disease. Non-invasive nanotechnologies can assess molecular changes in the lens, vitreous, and macula that predate visible pathology. Oxygen metabolism and circulatory physiology are measurable indices of ocular health that can detect variations of physiology and early disease.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This overview of paradigm shifts in ophthalmology suggests that the future will see significant improvements in ophthalmic diagnostics. The selected topics illustrate the principles of these paradigm shifts and should serve as a guide to further research and development. Indeed, successful implementation of these paradigm shifts in ophthalmology may provide useful guidance for similar developments in all of healthcare.
authors.affiliation: Dr. Sebag: VMR Institute for Vitreous Macula Retina, Huntington Beach, CA; Dr. Sadun: Doheny Eye Institute/UCLA, Los Angeles, CA; Dr. Pierce: Ocular Genomics Institute, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Sebag
authors.affiliation: Dr. Sebag: VMR Institute for Vitreous Macula Retina, Huntington Beach, CA; Dr. Sadun: Doheny Eye Institute/UCLA, Los Angeles, CA; Dr. Pierce: Ocular Genomics Institute, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School.
authors.forename: Alfredo A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Sadun
authors.affiliation: Dr. Sebag: VMR Institute for Vitreous Macula Retina, Huntington Beach, CA; Dr. Sadun: Doheny Eye Institute/UCLA, Los Angeles, CA; Dr. Pierce: Ocular Genomics Institute, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School.
authors.forename: Eric A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Pierce
mesh_terms: D000375:Aging; D005128:Eye Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000503:physiopathology; D006801:Humans; D009885:Ophthalmology / Q000379:methods*; D014792:Visual Acuity