title: Intake of dietary salt and drinking water: Implications for the development of age-related macular degeneration.
abstract: Systemic hypertension is a risk factor of age-related retinal diseases such as diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration. High intake of dietary salt and low intake of water increase extracellular osmolality resulting in hypertension, in particular in salt-sensitive individuals. This review summarizes the present knowledge regarding the impact of salt and water intake on the regulation of blood pressure, retinal function, and the development of age-related retinal diseases.
  
  
  
  A literature search of the Medline database and a summary of recent studies that used human RPE cells.
  
  
  
  The salt sensitivity of the blood pressure and plasma osmolality increase with age, and body water deficits are common in older individuals. High plasma osmolality has adverse effects in the retina. In RPE cells, high osmolality induces expression and secretion of angiogenic factors, such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), placental growth factor, and basic fibroblast growth factor, and expression of aquaporin-5, a water channel implicated in transepithelial water transport. The transcriptional activities of hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1) and nuclear factor of activated T cell 5 (NFAT5) are critical for the production of VEGF in response to salt-induced osmotic stress. Salt-induced osmotic stress also induces priming of the NLRP3 inflammasome and activates inflammatory enzymes in RPE cells.
  
  
  
  Raised plasma osmolality may aggravate age-related retinal diseases by stimulation of local inflammation and angiogenic factor production in the RPE. Alterations in salt and water consumption, and of minerals that stimulate renal salt excretion, may offer nutritional approaches to prevent age-related retinal disorders, in particular in salt-sensitive individuals and individuals who show signs of body dehydration.
authors.affiliation: Department of Ophthalmology and Eye Hospital, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.
authors.forename: Andreas
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Bringmann
authors.affiliation: Department of Ophthalmology and Eye Hospital, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.
authors.forename: Margrit
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hollborn
authors.affiliation: Department of Ophthalmology and Eye Hospital, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany; Helios Klinikum Aue, Aue, Germany.
authors.forename: Leon
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Kohen
authors.affiliation: Department of Ophthalmology and Eye Hospital, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.
authors.forename: Peter
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Wiedemann
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001794:Blood Pressure / Q000187:drug effects; D060766:Drinking Water; D006801:Humans; D058847:Inflammasomes / Q000378:metabolism; D008268:Macular Degeneration / Q000209:etiology*; D009994:Osmolar Concentration; D017673:Sodium Chloride, Dietary / Q000009:adverse effects*
chemical_list: D060766:Drinking Water; D058847:Inflammasomes; D017673:Sodium Chloride, Dietary