title: The impact of the severity of early life stress on diurnal cortisol: The role of puberty.
abstract: Researchers have documented dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in children and adolescents who experienced early life stress (ELS). The precise nature of this dysregulation, however, has been difficult to discern. In fact, both elevated and blunted patterns of diurnal cortisol regulation have been reported in children and adolescents exposed to greater ELS, including both reduced and heightened cortisol levels and change in cortisol across the day. These divergent findings may be due to developmental changes in the relation between ELS and HPA-axis functioning. The present study was designed to examine the role of puberty in the impact of the severity of ELS on the regulation of diurnal cortisol. Boys and girls (N=145) ages 9-13 years recruited from lower-risk communities completed an interview about their ELS experiences and at-home collection of diurnal cortisol. ELS experiences were objectively coded for severity, and children's level of pubertal development was measured using Tanner Staging. Multi-level piecewise mixed-effects models tested the effects of ELS severity and pubertal stage on cortisol levels at waking, the cortisol awakening response (CAR), and the daytime cortisol slope. While we found no significant interactive effects of pubertal stage and ELS severity on cortisol levels at waking or the daytime cortisol slope, findings indicated that pubertal stage interacted with ELS severity to predict the cortisol awakening response (CAR). Specifically, in earlier puberty, higher ELS was associated with a blunted CAR compared to lower ELS; in contrast, in later puberty, higher ELS was associated with a heightened CAR compared to lower ELS. Differences in the relation between ELS severity and the CAR were uniquely determined by puberty, and not by age. By considering and examining the role of puberty, the current study provides a developmental explanation for previous divergent findings of both blunted and heightened patterns of diurnal cortisol following ELS. These results indicate that careful attention should be given to children's pubertal status before drawing conclusions concerning the nature of diurnal cortisol dysregulation.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Jordan Hall, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA. Electronic address: lucyking@stanford.edu.
authors.forename: Lucy S
authors.initials: LS
authors.lastname: King
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Jordan Hall, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
authors.forename: Natalie L
authors.initials: NL
authors.lastname: Colich
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Jordan Hall, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
authors.forename: Joelle
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: LeMoult
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Jordan Hall, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
authors.forename: Kathryn L
authors.initials: KL
authors.lastname: Humphreys
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, 291 Campus Drive, Li Ka Shing Building, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
authors.forename: Sarah J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Ordaz
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Jordan Hall, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
authors.forename: Alexandria N
authors.initials: AN
authors.lastname: Price
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Jordan Hall, 450 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
authors.forename: Ian H
authors.initials: IH
authors.lastname: Gotlib
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D002648:Child; D002940:Circadian Rhythm / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000032:analysis*; D007030:Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System / Q000503:physiopathology*; D008297:Male; D010913:Pituitary-Adrenal System / Q000503:physiopathology*; D011627:Puberty / Q000502:physiology*; D012463:Saliva / Q000737:chemistry; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000503:physiopathology*
chemical_list: D006854:Hydrocortisone
keywords: Development; Diurnal cortisol; Early life stress; Puberty