title: Low incidence of inbreeding in a long-lived primate population isolated for 75 years.
abstract: When close relatives mate, offspring are expected to suffer fitness consequences due to inbreeding depression. Inbreeding has previously been quantified in two ways: using a sufficiently large panel of markers or deep and complete pedigrees over several generations. However, the application of both approaches is still limited by the challenge of compiling such data for species with long generation times, such as primates. Here, we assess inbreeding in rhesus macaques living on Cayo Santiago (Puerto Rico), a population genetically isolated since 1938, but descendant of a large set of presumably unrelated founders. Using comprehensive genetic data, we calculated inbreeding coefficients (F) for 2669 individuals with complete three generation pedigrees and 609 individuals with complete four generation pedigrees. We found that 0.79 and 7.39% of individuals had anF> 0 when using data from three and four generation pedigrees, respectively. No evidence of an increase in inbreeding over the study period (up to 23 years) was found. Furthermore, the observed mean relatedness of breeding pairs differed significantly from the distribution of parental relatedness expected as simulated based on previous reproductive data, suggesting that kin generally avoid breeding with each other. Finally, inbreeding was not a predictor of early mortality measured as survival until weaning and sexual maturation, respectively. Our results remain consistent with three estimators of inbreeding (standardized heterozygosity, internal relatedness, and homozygosity by loci) using up to 42 highly polymorphic microsatellites for the same set of individuals. Together, our results demonstrate that close inbreeding may not be prevalentevenin populations isolated over long periods when mechanisms of inbreeding avoidance can operate.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  When close relatives mate, offspring may suffer from such inbreeding, e.g., via lower survival and/or fertility. Using (i) a large panel of genetic markers and (ii) complete three or four generation pedigrees, respectively, we show that incidences of inbreeding in a long-lived primate population are rare, even after genetic isolation for 75 years. Moreover, our simulations suggest that kin in our population generally avoid breeding with each other. Finally, the few inbred individuals detected in our large sample did not suffer from lower survival. Given that many animal species face dramatic habitat loss combined with critical population declines, our study provides important implications for conservation biology in general and for population management in particular.
authors.affiliation: Junior Research Group of Primate Kin Selection, Department of Primatology, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.|Research Group of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, Talstraße 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.|German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), Deutscher Platz 5E, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
authors.forename: Anja
authors.identifier: 0000-0003-1772-8770
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Widdig
authors.affiliation: Junior Research Group of Primate Kin Selection, Department of Primatology, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.|Research Group of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, Talstraße 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
authors.forename: Laura
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Muniz
authors.affiliation: Junior Research Group of Primate Kin Selection, Department of Primatology, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.|Research Group of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, Talstraße 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
authors.forename: Mirjam
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Minkner
authors.affiliation: Junior Research Group of Primate Kin Selection, Department of Primatology, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.|Research Group of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, Talstraße 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
authors.forename: Yvonne
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Barth
authors.affiliation: Junior Research Group of Primate Kin Selection, Department of Primatology, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.|Research Group of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, Talstraße 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
authors.forename: Stefanie
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Bley
authors.affiliation: Junior Research Group of Primate Kin Selection, Department of Primatology, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.|Research Group of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, Talstraße 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.|Caribbean Primate Research Center, University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus, Punta Santiago, PO Box 906, San Juan, PR 00741 USA.
authors.forename: Angelina
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ruiz-Lambides
authors.affiliation: Institute of Medical Informatics and Statistics, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, Brunswiker Straße 10, 24105 Kiel, Germany.
authors.forename: Olaf
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Junge
authors.affiliation: Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
authors.forename: Roger
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Mundry
authors.affiliation: Junior Research Group of Primate Kin Selection, Department of Primatology, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.|Research Group of Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, Talstraße 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
authors.forename: Lars
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Kulik
keywords: Early mortality; Estimates of inbreeding; Genetic isolation; Inbreeding avoidance; Multi-generational pedigree; Rhesus macaques