title: Measuring biomarkers in wastewater as a new source of epidemiological information: Current state and future perspectives.
abstract: The information obtained from the chemical analysis of specific human excretion products (biomarkers) in urban wastewater can be used to estimate the exposure or consumption of the population under investigation to a defined substance. A proper biomarker can provide relevant information about lifestyle habits, health and wellbeing, but its selection is not an easy task as it should fulfil several specific requirements in order to be successfully employed. This paper aims to summarize the current knowledge related to the most relevant biomarkers used so far. In addition, some potential wastewater biomarkers that could be used for future applications were evaluated. For this purpose, representative chemical classes have been chosen and grouped in four main categories: (i) those that provide estimates of lifestyle factors and substance use, (ii) those used to estimate the exposure to toxicants present in the environment and food, (iii) those that have the potential to provide information about public health and illness and (iv) those used to estimate the population size. To facilitate the evaluation of the eligibility of a compound as a biomarker, information, when available, on stability in urine and wastewater and pharmacokinetic data (i.e. metabolism and urinary excretion profile) has been reviewed. Finally, several needs and recommendations for future research are proposed.
authors.affiliation: Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, Universitat Jaume I, Castellon, Spain; IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy. Electronic address: lor@uji.es.
authors.forename: Emma
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Gracia-Lor
authors.affiliation: IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy. Electronic address: sara.castiglioni@marionegri.it.
authors.forename: Sara
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Castiglioni
authors.affiliation: Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, Universitat Jaume I, Castellon, Spain. Electronic address: bade@uji.es.
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Bade
authors.affiliation: Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium. Electronic address: frederic.been@uantwerpen.be.
authors.forename: Frederic
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Been
authors.affiliation: Deparment of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK. Electronic address: E.Castrignano@bath.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Erika
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Castrignanò
authors.affiliation: Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium. Electronic address: adrian.covaci@uantwerpen.be.
authors.forename: Adrian
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Covaci
authors.affiliation: IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy. Electronic address: iria.gonzalez@usc.es.
authors.forename: Iria
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: González-Mariño
authors.affiliation: NIREAS-International Water Research Center, University of Cyprus, P.O. Box 20537, 1678 Nicosia, Cyprus. Electronic address: hapeshi.evroula@ucy.ac.cy.
authors.forename: Evroula
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Hapeshi
authors.affiliation: Deparment of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK. Electronic address: B.Kasprzyk-Hordern@bath.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Barbara
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Kasprzyk-Hordern
authors.affiliation: Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium. Electronic address: juliet.kinyua@uantwerpen.be.
authors.forename: Juliet
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Kinyua
authors.affiliation: Toxicological Center, University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium. Electronic address: FoonYin.Lai@uantwerpen.be.
authors.forename: Foon Yin
authors.initials: FY
authors.lastname: Lai
authors.affiliation: Analytical Group, Chair of Urban Water Systems Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Germany. Electronic address: t.letzel@tum.de.
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Letzel
authors.affiliation: Deparment of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK. Electronic address: l.lopardo@bath.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Luigi
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Lopardo
authors.affiliation: Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany. Electronic address: markus.meyer@med.uni-heidelberg.de.
authors.forename: Markus R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Meyer
authors.affiliation: National Research Center for Environmental Toxicology, The University of Queensland, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia. Electronic address: j.obrien2@uq.edu.au.
authors.forename: Jake
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: O'Brien
authors.affiliation: Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark. Electronic address: pear@env.dtu.dk.
authors.forename: Pedram
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Ramin
authors.affiliation: IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy. Electronic address: nikolaos.rousis@marionegri.it.
authors.forename: Nikolaos I
authors.initials: NI
authors.lastname: Rousis
authors.affiliation: Deparment of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK. Electronic address: a.rydevik@bath.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Axel
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Rydevik
authors.affiliation: Ecotoxicology and Risk Assessment, Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway. Electronic address: Yeonsuk.Ryu@niva.no.
authors.forename: Yeonsuk
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Ryu
authors.affiliation: CIMAR/CIIMAR, LA-Interdisciplinary Centre for marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Portugal; FCUP-Dept of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal. Electronic address: santos@ciimar.up.pt.
authors.forename: Miguel M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Santos
authors.affiliation: Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Zagreb, Croatia. Electronic address: isenta@irb.hr.
authors.forename: Ivan
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Senta
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis Zografou, 15771 Athens, Greece. Electronic address: ntho@chem.uoa.gr.
authors.forename: Nikolaos S
authors.initials: NS
authors.lastname: Thomaidis
authors.affiliation: Analytical Group, Chair of Urban Water Systems Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Germany. Electronic address: sofia.veloutsou@tum.de.
authors.forename: Sofia
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Veloutsou
authors.affiliation: Division of Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Glasgow, G128LT Glasgow, United Kingdom. Electronic address: Zhugen.Yang@glasgow.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Zhugen
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Yang
authors.affiliation: IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Milan, Italy. Electronic address: ettore.zuccato@marionegri.it.
authors.forename: Ettore
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Zuccato
authors.affiliation: Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, Universitat Jaume I, Castellon, Spain. Electronic address: bijlsma@uji.es.
authors.forename: Lubertus
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Bijlsma
mesh_terms: D015415:Biomarkers / Q000032:analysis*; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000032:analysis*; D006801:Humans; D008019:Life Style; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations / Q000032:analysis*; D011156:Population Density; D011634:Public Health; D062065:Wastewater / Q000032:analysis*
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations; D062065:Wastewater
keywords: Biomarker; Consumption; Epidemiology; Exposure; Population; Wastewater