title: Antibacterial Mechanism of 405-Nanometer Light-Emitting Diode against Salmonella at Refrigeration Temperature.
abstract: The aim of this study was to elucidate the antibacterial mechanism of 405 ± 5-nm light-emitting diode (LED) illumination againstSalmonellaat 4°C in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) by determining endogenous coproporphyrin content, DNA oxidation, damage to membrane function, and morphological change. Gene expression levels, including ofoxyR,recA,rpoS,sodA, andsoxR, were also examined to understand the response ofSalmonellato LED illumination. The results showed thatSalmonellastrains responded differently to LED illumination, revealing thatS. entericaserovar Enteritidis (ATCC 13076) andS. entericasubsp.entericaserovar Saintpaul (ATCC 9712) were more susceptible and resistant, respectively, than the 16 other strains tested. There was no difference in the amounts of endogenous coproporphyrin in the two strains. Compared with that in nonilluminated cells, the DNA oxidation levels in illuminated cells increased. In illuminated cells, we observed a loss of efflux pump activity, damage to the glucose uptake system, and changes in membrane potential and integrity. Transmission electron microscopy revealed a disorganization of chromosomes and ribosomes due to LED illumination. The levels of the five genes measured in the nonilluminated and illuminatedSSaintpaul cells were upregulated in PBS at a set temperature of 4°C, indicating that increased gene expression levels might be due to a temperature shift and nutrient deficiency rather than to LED illumination. In contrast, onlyoxyRinSEnteritidis cells was upregulated. Thus, different sensitivities of the two strains to LED illumination were attributed to differences in gene regulation.IMPORTANCEBacterial inactivation using visible light has recently received attention as a safe and environmentally friendly technology, in contrast with UV light, which has detrimental effects on human health and the environment. This study was designed to understand how 405 ± 5-nm light-emitting diode (LED) illumination killsSalmonellastrains at refrigeration temperature. The data clearly demonstrated that the effectiveness of LED illumination onSalmonellastrains depended highly on the serotype and strain. Our findings also revealed that its antibacterial mechanism was mainly attributed to DNA oxidation and a loss of membrane functions rather than membrane lipid peroxidation, which has been proposed by other researchers who studied the antibacterial effect of LED illumination by adding exogenous photosensitizers, such as chlorophyllin and hypericin. Therefore, this study suggests that the detailed antibacterial mechanisms of 405-nm LED illumination without additional photosensitizers may differ from that by exogenous photosensitizers. Furthermore, a change in stress-related gene regulation may alter the susceptibility ofSalmonellacells to LED illumination at refrigeration temperature. Thus, our study provides new insights into the antibacterial mechanism of 405 ± 5-nm LED illumination onSalmonellacells.
authors.affiliation: Food Science and Technology Programme, Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
authors.forename: Min-Jeong
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Kim
authors.affiliation: Food Science and Technology Programme, Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore chmyukhg@nus.edu.sg.
authors.forename: Hyun-Gyun
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9841-7899
authors.initials: HG
authors.lastname: Yuk
mesh_terms: D002462:Cell Membrane / Q000528:radiation effects; D002876:Chromosomes, Bacterial / Q000528:radiation effects; D003080:Cold Temperature; D015169:Colony Count, Microbial; D004269:DNA, Bacterial / Q000528:radiation effects; D005516:Food Microbiology; D015964:Gene Expression Regulation, Bacterial / Q000528:radiation effects; D005798:Genes, Bacterial / Q000528:radiation effects; D005947:Glucose / Q000378:metabolism; D008027:Light; D008826:Microbial Sensitivity Tests; D046529:Microscopy, Electron, Transmission; D010084:Oxidation-Reduction / Q000528:radiation effects; D017319:Photosensitizing Agents; D012034:Refrigeration; D012270:Ribosomes / Q000528:radiation effects; D012475:Salmonella / Q000166:cytology / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism / Q000528:radiation effects*; D012477:Salmonella enteritidis / Q000528:radiation effects; D015854:Up-Regulation / Q000528:radiation effects
chemical_list: D004269:DNA, Bacterial; D017319:Photosensitizing Agents; D005947:Glucose
keywords: 405-nm light-emitting diode; DNA oxidation; Salmonella; antibacterial mechanism; gene expression; membrane functions