title: Recent Outbreaks of Shigellosis in California Caused by Two Distinct Populations ofShigella sonneiwith either Increased Virulence or Fluoroquinolone Resistance.
abstract: Shigella sonneihas caused unusually large outbreaks of shigellosis in California in 2014 and 2015. Preliminary data indicated the involvement of two distinct bacterial populations, one from San Diego and San Joaquin (SDi/SJo) and one from the San Francisco (SFr) Bay area. Whole-genome analysis and antibiotic susceptibility testing of 68 outbreak and archival isolates ofS. sonneiwere performed to investigate the microbiological factors related to these outbreaks. Both SDi/SJo and SFr populations, as well as almost all of the archivalS. sonneiisolates belonged to sequence type 152 (ST152). Genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis clustered the majority of California (CA) isolates to an earlier described lineage III. Isolates in the SDi/SJo population had a novel lambdoid bacteriophage carrying genes encoding Shiga toxin (STX) that were most closely related to that found inEscherichia coliO104:H4. However, the STX genes (stx1Aandstx1B) from this novel phage had sequences most similar to the phages fromShigella flexneriandS. dysenteriae. The isolates in the SFr population were resistant to ciprofloxacin due to point mutations ingyrAandparCgenes and were related to the fluoroquinolone-resistantS. sonneiclade within lineage III that originated in South Asia. The emergence of a highly virulentS. sonneistrain and introduction of a fluoroquinolone-resistant strain reflect the changing traits of this pathogen in California. An enhanced monitoring is advocated for early detection of future outbreaks caused by such strains.IMPORTANCEShigellosis is an acute diarrheal disease causing nearly half a million infections, 6,000 hospitalizations, and 70 deaths annually in the United States.S. sonneicaused two unusually large outbreaks in 2014 and 2015 in California. We used whole-genome sequencing to understand the pathogenic potential of bacteria involved in these outbreaks. Our results suggest the persistence of a localS. sonneiSDi/SJo clone in California since at least 2008. Recently, a derivative of the original clone acquired the ability to produce Shiga toxin (STX) via exchanges of bacteriophages with other bacteria. STX production is connected with more severe disease, including bloody diarrhea. A second population ofS. sonneithat caused an outbreak in the San Francisco area was resistant to fluoroquinolones and showed evidence of connection to a fluoroquinolone-resistant lineage from South Asia. These emerging trends inS. sonneipopulations in California must be monitored for future risks of the spread of increasingly virulent and resistant clones.
authors.affiliation: Microbial Diseases Laboratory, California Department of Public Health, Richmond, California, USA.
authors.forename: Varvara K
authors.initials: VK
authors.lastname: Kozyreva
authors.affiliation: Genome Center, Department of Evolution and Ecology, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA.
authors.forename: Guillaume
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Jospin
authors.affiliation: Microbial Diseases Laboratory, California Department of Public Health, Richmond, California, USA.
authors.forename: Alexander L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Greninger
authors.affiliation: Division of Communicable Disease Control, California Department of Public Health, Richmond, California, USA.
authors.forename: James P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Watt
authors.affiliation: Genome Center, Department of Evolution and Ecology, Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, USA.
authors.forename: Jonathan A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Eisen
authors.affiliation: Microbial Diseases Laboratory, California Department of Public Health, Richmond, California, USA.
authors.forename: Vishnu
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Chaturvedi
keywords: California; Shigella sonnei; shigellosis