title: A mini-review of non-parenteral clonidine preparations for paediatric sedation.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To provide an overview of non-parenteral clonidine formulations and assess the feasibility of their use for paediatric sedation.
  
  
  METHODS
  A literature search was conducted using electronic databases and a combination of search terms. Forty articles met the inclusion criteria. Publications were grouped into different dosage forms and assessed for their potential application for sedation of children in intensive care.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Several routes of clonidine administration have been investigated for numerous indications in children, including perioperative sedation and analgesia. These include oral liquids, tablets, oral transmucosal systems, nasal sprays and rectal suspensions. Conflicting studies on oral transmucosal clonidine formulations suggest that further research is required to fully establish efficacy. Nasal sprays and rectal suspensions have the advantages of rapid onset of action and potential for dose flexibility, but predictable absorption is difficult to obtain.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Provided age-appropriate strengths are available, intravenous formulations remain the most predictable in terms of bioavailability and flexible in terms of dose adjustment. However, as with all routes, down-titration is difficult given the long half-life of clonidine. Oral transmucosal systems, nasal sprays and rectal suspensions have potential in a less acute setting, but significant clinical work is required to elucidate a full pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profile.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutics, UCL School of Pharmacy, London, UK.
authors.forename: Sara M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Hanning
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutics, UCL School of Pharmacy, London, UK.
authors.forename: Mine
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Orlu Gul
authors.affiliation: Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany.
authors.forename: Irmgard
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Toni
authors.affiliation: Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Hospital Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany.
authors.forename: Antje
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Neubert
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutics, UCL School of Pharmacy, London, UK.
authors.forename: Catherine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Tuleu
mesh_terms: D000700:Analgesics / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism; D001682:Biological Availability; D002648:Child; D003000:Clonidine / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism; D004304:Dosage Forms; D004333:Drug Administration Routes; D004339:Drug Compounding; D006801:Humans; D010372:Pediatrics / Q000379:methods*
chemical_list: D000700:Analgesics; D004304:Dosage Forms; D003000:Clonidine
keywords: clonidine; formulation; non-parenteral; paediatric sedation; paediatrics