title: Interaction between motor ability and skill learning in children: Application of implicit and explicit approaches.
abstract: The benefits of implicit and explicit motor learning approaches in young adults have been studied extensively, but much less in children. This study investigated the relationship between fundamental motor ability and implicit/explicit learning in children using the errorless learning paradigm. First, the motor ability of 261 children (142 boys, 119 girls) aged 9-12 years (M = 9.74, SD = 0.67) was measured. Second, children with motor ability scores in the upper and lower quartile learned a golf-putting skill in either an errorless (implicit) or errorful (explicit) learning condition. Four groups were formed: Errorless High-Ability (n = 13), Errorless Low-Ability (n = 11), Errorful High-Ability (n = 10), and Errorful Low-Ability (n = 11). Learning consisted of 300 practice trials, while testing included a 50-trial retention test, followed by a 50-trial secondary task transfer test, and another 50-trial retention test. The results showed that for high- and low-ability errorless learners, motor performance was unaffected by the secondary task, as was the case for high-ability errorful learners. Low-ability errorful learners performed worse with a secondary task and were significantly poorer than the corresponding high-ability group. These results suggest that implicit motor learning (errorless) may be beneficial for children with low motor ability. The findings also show a trend that children of high motor ability might benefit from learning explicitly (errorful). Further research is recommended to examine the compatibility of implicit and explicit approaches for children of different abilities.
authors.affiliation: a Institute of Human Performance, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong , Hong Kong.
authors.forename: Jon P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Maxwell
authors.affiliation: b Te Oranga School of Human Development and Movement Studies , University of Waikato , Hamilton , New Zealand.|c School of Public Health , The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong , Hong Kong.
authors.forename: Catherine M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Capio
authors.affiliation: b Te Oranga School of Human Development and Movement Studies , University of Waikato , Hamilton , New Zealand.|c School of Public Health , The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong , Hong Kong.
authors.forename: Rich S W
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: Masters
mesh_terms: D054874:Athletic Performance / Q000502:physiology*; D002648:Child; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005080:Exercise Test; D005260:Female; D006055:Golf / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D007858:Learning / Q000502:physiology*; D008297:Male; D008568:Memory / Q000502:physiology; D009048:Motor Skills / Q000502:physiology*
keywords: Implicit motor learning; children; errorless learning; motor ability; working memory