title: Life history and past demography maintain genetic structure, outcrossing rate, contemporary pollen gene flow of an understory herb in a highly fragmented rainforest.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Theory predicts that habitat fragmentation, by reducing population size and increasing isolation among remnant populations, can alter their genetic diversity and structure. A cascade of effects is expected: genetic drift and inbreeding after a population bottleneck, changes in biotic interactions that may affect, as in the case of plants, pollen dynamics, mating system, reproductive success. The detection of the effects of contemporary habitat fragmentation on the genetic structure of populations are conditioned by the magnitude of change, given the few number of generations since the onset of fragmentation, especially for long-lived organisms. However, the present-day genetic structure of populations may bear the signature of past demography events. Here, we examine the effects of rainforest fragmentation on the genetic diversity, population structure, mating system (outcrossing rate), indirect gene flow and contemporary pollen dynamics in the understory herbAphelandra aurantiaca. Also, we assessed its present-day genetic structure under different past demographic scenarios.
  
  
  METHODS
  Twelve populations ofA. aurantiacawere sampled in large (4), medium (3), and small (5) forest fragments in the lowland tropical rainforest at Los Tuxtlas region. Variation at 11 microsatellite loci was assessed in 28-30 reproductive plants per population. In two medium- and two large-size fragments we estimated the density of reproductive plants, and the mating system by analyzing the progeny of different mother plants per population.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Despite prevailing habitat fragmentation, populations ofA. aurantiacapossess high genetic variation (He= 0.61), weak genetic structure (Rst= 0.037), and slight inbreeding in small fragments. Effective population sizes (Ne) were large, but slightly lower in small fragments. Migrants derive mostly from large and medium size fragments. Gene dispersal is highly restricted but long distance gene dispersal events were detected.Aphelandra aurantiacashows a mixed mating system (tm= 0.81) and the outcrossing rate have not been affected by habitat fragmentation. A strong pollen pool structure was detected due to few effective pollen donors (Nep) and low distance pollen movement, pointing that most plants received pollen from close neighbors. Past demographic fluctuations may have affected the present population genetic structure as Bayesian coalescent analysis revealed the signature of past population expansion, possibly during warmer conditions after the last glacial maximum.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Habitat fragmentation has not increased genetic differentiation or reduced genetic diversity ofA. aurantiacadespite dozens of generations since the onset of fragmentation in the region of Los Tuxtlas. Instead, past population expansion is compatible with the lack of observed genetic structure. The predicted negative effects of rainforest fragmentation on genetic diversity and population structure ofA. aurantiacaseem to have been buffered owing to its large effective populations and long-distance dispersal events. In particular, its mixed-mating system, mostly of outcrossing, suggests high efficiency of pollinators promoting connectivity and reducing inbreeding. However, some results point that the effects of fragmentation are underway, as two small fragments showed higher membership probabilities to their population of origin, suggesting genetic isolation. Our findings underscore the importance of fragment size to maintain genetic connectivity across the landscape.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Ecological Genetics and Evolution, Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) , Mexico.
authors.forename: Pilar
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Suárez-Montes
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Ecological Genetics and Evolution, Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) , Mexico.
authors.forename: Mariana
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Chávez-Pesqueira
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Ecological Genetics and Evolution, Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) , Mexico.
authors.forename: Juan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Núñez-Farfán
keywords: Aphelandra aurantiaca; Gene flow; Habitat fragmentation; Los Tuxtlas; Mating system; Outcrossing rate; Population expansion; Tropical rainforest