title: Dynamic high-resolution ultrasound of intrinsic and extrinsic ligaments of the wrist: How to make it simple.
abstract: Wrist ligaments are crucial structures for the maintenance of carpal stability. They are classified into extrinsic ligaments, connecting the carpus with the forearm bones or distal radioulnar ligaments, and intrinsic ligaments, entirely situated within the carpus. Lesions of intrinsic and extrinsic ligaments of the wrist have been demonstrated to occur largely, mostly in patients with history of trauma and carpal instability, or rheumatoid arthritis. Ultrasound allows for rapid, cost-effective, non-invasive and dynamic evaluation of the wrist, and may represent a valuable diagnostic tool. Although promising results have been published, ultrasound of wrist ligaments is not performed in routine clinical practice, maybe due to its technical feasibility regarded as quite complex. This review article aims to enlighten readers about the normal sonographic appearance of intrinsic and extrinsic carpal ligaments, and describe a systematic approach for their sonographic assessment with detailed anatomic landmarks, dynamic manoeuvres and scanning technique.
authors.affiliation: Scuola di Specializzazione in Radiodiagnostica, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Festa del Perdono 7, 20122 Milano, Italy. Electronic address: sal.gitto@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Salvatore
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Gitto
authors.affiliation: Scuola di Specializzazione in Radiodiagnostica, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Festa del Perdono 7, 20122 Milano, Italy.
authors.forename: Carmelo
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Messina
authors.affiliation: Servizio di Radiologia, IRCCS Policlinico San Donato, Via Morandi 30, 20097 San Donato Milanese, Italy; Dipartimento di Radiologia Interventistica, Istituto Europeo di Oncologia, Via Ripamonti 435, 20141 Milano, Italy.
authors.forename: Giovanni
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Mauri
authors.affiliation: Servizio di Radiologia, IRCCS Policlinico San Donato, Via Morandi 30, 20097 San Donato Milanese, Italy.
authors.forename: Alberto
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Aliprandi
authors.affiliation: Servizio di Radiologia, IRCCS Policlinico San Donato, Via Morandi 30, 20097 San Donato Milanese, Italy; Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Pascal 36, 20133 Milano, Italy.
authors.forename: Francesco
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Sardanelli
authors.affiliation: Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Pascal 36, 20133 Milano, Italy; Unità Operativa di Radiologia/Diagnostica per Immagini con Servizio di Radiologia Interventistica, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Galeazzi, Via Riccardo Galeazzi 4, 20161 Milano, Italy.
authors.forename: Luca Maria
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Sconfienza
mesh_terms: D059925:Anatomic Landmarks; D006801:Humans; D007592:Joint Diseases / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D008023:Ligaments, Articular / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D014463:Ultrasonography / Q000379:methods*; D014955:Wrist Joint / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*
keywords: Ligaments; Musculoskeletal imaging; Ultrasound; Wrist