title: Increased proliferation of late-born retinal progenitor cells by gestational lead exposure delays rod and bipolar cell differentiation.
abstract: Studies of neuronal development in the retina often examine the stages of proliferation, differentiation, and synaptic development, albeit independently. Our goal was to determine if a known neurotoxicant insult to a population of retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) would affect their eventual differentiation and synaptic development. To that end, we used our previously published human equivalent murine model of low-level gestational lead exposure (GLE). Children and animals with GLE exhibit increased scotopic electroretinogram a- and b-waves. Adult mice with GLE exhibit an increased number of late-born RPCs, a prolonged period of RPC proliferation, and an increased number of late-born rod photoreceptors and rod and cone bipolar cells (BCs), with no change in the number of late-born Müller glial cells or early-born neurons. The specific aims of this study were to determine whether increased and prolonged RPC proliferation alters the spatiotemporal differentiation and synaptic development of rods and BCs in early postnatal GLE retinas compared to control retinas.
  
  
  
  C57BL/6N mouse pups were exposed to lead acetate via drinking water throughout gestation and until postnatal day 10, which is equivalent to the human gestation period for retinal neurogenesis. RT-qPCR, immunohistochemical analysis, and western blots of well-characterized, cell-specific genes and proteins were performed at embryonic and early postnatal ages to assess rod and cone photoreceptor differentiation, rod and BC differentiation and synaptic development, and Müller glial cell differentiation.
  
  
  
  Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) with the rod-specific transcription factorsNrl,Nr2e3, andCrxand the rod-specific functional geneRho, along with central retinal confocal studies with anti-recoverin and anti-rhodopsin antibodies, revealed a two-day delay in the differentiation of rod photoreceptors in GLE retinas. Rhodopsin immunoblots supported this conclusion. No changes in glutamine synthetase gene or protein expression, a marker for late-born Müller glial cells, were observed in the developing retinas. In the retinas from the GLE mice, anti-PKCα, -Chx10(Vsx2) and -secretagogin antibodies revealed a two- to three-day delay in the differentiation of rod and cone BCs, whereas the expression of the proneural and BC genesOtx2andChx10, respectively, increased. In addition, confocal studies of proteins associated with functional synapses (e.g., vesicular glutamate transporter 1 [VGluT1], plasma membrane calcium ATPase [PMCA], transient receptor potential channel M1 [TRPM1], and synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2B [SV2B]) revealed a two-day delay in the formation of the outer and inner plexiform layers of the GLE retinas. Moreover, several markers revealed that the initiation of the differentiation and intensity of the labeling of early-born cells in the retinal ganglion cell and inner plexiform layers were not different in the control retinas.
  
  
  
  Our combined gene, confocal, and immunoblot findings revealed that the onset of rod and BC differentiation and their subsequent synaptic development is delayed by two to three days in GLE retinas. These results suggest that perturbations during the early proliferative stages of late-born RPCs fated to be rods and BCs ultimately alter the coordinated time-dependent progression of rod and BC differentiation and synaptic development. These GLE effects were selective for late-born neurons. Although the molecular mechanisms are unknown, alterations in soluble neurotrophic factors and/or their receptors are likely to play a role. Since neurodevelopmental delays and altered synaptic connectivity are associated with neuropsychiatric and behavioral disorders as well as cognitive deficits, future work is needed to determine if similar effects occur in the brains of GLE mice and whether children with GLE experience similar delays in retinal and brain neuronal differentiation and synaptic development.
authors.affiliation: College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, TX; Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX.
authors.forename: Shawnta Y
authors.initials: SY
authors.lastname: Chaney
authors.affiliation: College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, TX; Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX.
authors.forename: Shradha
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Mukherjee
authors.affiliation: College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, TX; Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX.
authors.forename: Anand
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Giddabasappa
authors.affiliation: College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, TX.
authors.forename: Elda M
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: Rueda
authors.affiliation: College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, TX; Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX.
authors.forename: W Ryan
authors.initials: WR
authors.lastname: Hamilton
authors.affiliation: College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, TX; Department of Natural Sciences, University of Houston-Downtown; Houston, TX.
authors.forename: Jerry E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Johnson
authors.affiliation: College of Optometry, University of Houston, Houston, TX; Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Houston, Houston, TX; Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Science, University of Houston, Houston, TX.
authors.forename: Donald A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Fox
mesh_terms: D000375:Aging / Q000378:metabolism; D000818:Animals; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000378:metabolism; D002454:Cell Differentiation / Q000187:drug effects; D049109:Cell Proliferation / Q000187:drug effects; D003712:Dendrites / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D005260:Female; D018507:Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental / Q000187:drug effects; D005974:Glutamate-Ammonia Ligase / Q000378:metabolism; D007854:Lead / Q000633:toxicity*; D008810:Mice, Inbred C57BL; D055495:Neurogenesis / Q000187:drug effects; D009457:Neuroglia / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D011247:Pregnancy; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology*; D017207:Rats, Sprague-Dawley; D051245:Retinal Bipolar Cells / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology*; D017948:Retinal Rod Photoreceptor Cells / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology*; D012243:Rhodopsin / Q000378:metabolism; D013569:Synapses / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D007854:Lead; D012243:Rhodopsin; D005974:Glutamate-Ammonia Ligase