title: The effect of beam purity and scanner complexity on proton CT accuracy.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To determine the dependence of the accuracy in reconstruction of relative stopping power (RSP) with proton computerized tomography (pCT) scans on the purity of the proton beam and the technological complexity of the pCT scanner using standard phantoms and a digital representation of a pediatric patient.
  
  
  METHODS
  The Monte Carlo method was applied to simulate the pCT scanner, using both a pure proton beam (uniform 200 MeV mono-energetic, parallel beam) and the Northwestern Medicine Chicago Proton Center (NMCPC) clinical beam in uniform scanning mode. The accuracy of the simulation was validated with measurements performed at NMCPC including reconstructed RSP images obtained with a preclinical prototype pCT scanner. The pCT scanner energy detector was then simulated in three configurations of increasing complexity: an ideal totally absorbing detector, a single stage detector and a multi-stage detector. A set of 15 cm diameter water cylinders containing either water alone or inserts of different material, size, and position were simulated at 90 projection angles (4° steps) for the pure and clinical proton beams and the three pCT configurations. A pCT image of the head of a detailed digital pediatric phantom was also reconstructed from the simulated pCT scan with the prototype detector.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The RSP error increased for all configurations for insert sizes under 7.5 mm in radius, with a sharp increase below 5 mm in radius, attributed to a limit in spatial resolution. The highest accuracy achievable using the current pCT calibration step phantom and reconstruction algorithm, calculated for the ideal case of a pure beam with totally absorbing energy detector, was 1.3% error in RSP for inserts of 5 mm radius or more, 0.7 mm in range for the 2.5 mm radius inserts, or better. When the highest complexity of the scanner geometry was introduced, some artifacts arose in the reconstructed images, particularly in the center of the phantom. Replacing the step phantom used for calibration with a wedge phantom led to RSP accuracy close to the ideal case, with no significant dependence of RSP error on insert location or material. The accuracy with the multi-stage detector and NMCPC beam for the cylindrical phantoms was 2.2% in RSP error for inserts of 5 mm radius or more, 0.7 mm in range for the 2.5 mm radius inserts, or better. The pCT scan of the pediatric phantom resulted in mean RSP values within 1.3% of the reference RSP, with a range error under 1 mm, except in exceptional situations of parallel incidence on a boundary between low and high density.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The pCT imaging technique proved to be a precise and accurate imaging tool, rivaling the current x-rays based techniques, with the advantage of being directly sensitive to proton stopping power rather than photon interaction coefficients. Measured and simulated pCT images were obtained from a wobbled proton beam for the first time. Since the in-silico results are expected to accurately represent the prototype pCT, upcoming measurements using the wedge phantom for calibration are expected to show similar accuracy in the reconstructed RSP.
authors.affiliation: Radiation Oncology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA 94115, USA.
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Piersimoni
authors.affiliation: Radiation Oncology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA 94115, USA.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Ramos-Méndez
authors.affiliation: Radiation Oncology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA 94115, USA.
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Geoghegan
authors.affiliation: Radiation Research Laboratories, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA.
authors.forename: V A
authors.initials: VA
authors.lastname: Bashkirov
authors.affiliation: Radiation Research Laboratories, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92354, USA.
authors.forename: R W
authors.initials: RW
authors.lastname: Schulte
authors.affiliation: Radiation Oncology, UCSF, San Francisco, CA 94115, USA.
authors.forename: B A
authors.initials: BA
authors.lastname: Faddegon
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D002138:Calibration; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted; D009010:Monte Carlo Method; D019047:Phantoms, Imaging; D011522:Protons; D012015:Reference Standards; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed / Q000295:instrumentation*
chemical_list: D011522:Protons
keywords: Geant4; MC simulation; TOPAS; protonCT; quality assurance