title: Recalled Separation Anxiety in Childhood in Istmo Zapotec Men, Women, and Muxes.
abstract: The Istmo Zapotec are a pre-Columbian cultural group indigenous to the Istmo region of Oaxaca, Mexico. Istmo Zapotec recognize three genders: men, women, and muxes. Like Istmo Zapotec men, muxes are biological males. However, unlike Istmo Zapotec men, most muxes are exclusively androphilic (i.e., sexually attracted to adult males), relatively feminine, and routinely adopt the receptive role during anal intercourse. Furthermore, the Istmo Zapotec recognize two types of muxes: muxe gunaa, who resemble the transgender androphilic males that are common in many non-Western cultures, and muxe nguiiu, who resemble the cisgender androphilic males ("gay" men) common in Western cultures. Retrospective research conducted in Canada and Samoa demonstrates that cisgender and transgender androphilic males recall elevated indicators of childhood separation anxiety (i.e., feelings of distress related to separation from major attachment figures) when compared to males who are gynephilic (i.e., sexually attracted to adult females). The present study compared recalled indicators of childhood separation anxiety among Istmo Zapotec men, women, muxe gunaa, and muxe nguiiu (N = 454). Men recalled significantly lower levels of childhood separation anxiety compared to all other groups (all p < .042). No additional group differences were found. Our results are consistent with previous research conducted in Canada and Samoa, suggesting that elevated childhood separation anxiety is a developmental correlate of male androphilia that is cross-culturally universal. This research is also consistent with the conclusion that cisgender and transgender male androphiles share a common biological and developmental foundation despite being different in appearance.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada. francisco.gomez@uleth.ca.
authors.forename: Francisco R
authors.initials: FR
authors.lastname: Gómez
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada.
authors.forename: Scott W
authors.initials: SW
authors.lastname: Semenyna
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada.
authors.forename: Lucas
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Court
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB, T1K 3M4, Canada.
authors.forename: Paul L
authors.initials: PL
authors.lastname: Vasey
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001010:Anxiety, Separation / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D005783:Gender Identity; D018451:Homosexuality, Male / Q000208:ethnology / Q000523:psychology*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D011939:Mental Recall; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D018947:Samoa; D012725:Sexual Behavior / Q000208:ethnology / Q000523:psychology*
keywords: Childhood separation anxiety; Cross-cultural universals; Male androphilia; Sexual orientation; Zapotec