title: Adults with developmental dyslexia show selective impairments in time-based and self-initiated prospective memory: Self-report and clinical evidence.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Prospective memory (PM; memory for delayed intentions) would seem to be impaired in dyslexia but evidence is currently limited in scope.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  There is a need, therefore, firstly, to explore PM under controlled conditions using a broader range of PM tasks than used previously and, secondly, to determine whether objectively measured and self-reported PM problems can be found in the same individuals with dyslexia.
  
  
  METHODS
  The responses of 30 adults with dyslexia were compared with those of 30 IQ-matched adults without dyslexia on a self-report and a clinical measure of PM.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Dyslexia-related deficits were shown on the clinical measure overall and, more particularly, when PM responses had to be made to cues based on time rather than environmental events. Adults with dyslexia were also more likely to forget to carry out an intention under naturalistic conditions 24h later. On the self-report questionnaire, the group with dyslexia reported significantly more frequent problems with PM overall, despite using more techniques to aid their memory. In particular, problems were identified with longer-term PM tasks and PM which had to be self-initiated.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Dyslexia-related PM deficits were found under both laboratory and everyday conditions in the same participants; the first time that this has been demonstrated. These findings support previous experimental research which has highlighted dyslexia-related deficits in PM when the enacting of intentions is based on time cues and/or has to be self-initiated rather than being in prompted by environmental events.
authors.affiliation: London South Bank University, United Kingdom. Electronic address: smithspj@lsbu.ac.uk.
authors.forename: James H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Smith-Spark
authors.affiliation: London South Bank University, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Adam P
authors.initials: AP
authors.lastname: Zięcik
authors.affiliation: London South Bank University, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Christopher
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Sterling
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D003463:Cues; D004410:Dyslexia / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000523:psychology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D033182:Intention; D008297:Male; D008569:Memory Disorders / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000523:psychology; D061212:Memory, Episodic; D057566:Self Report; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013997:Time Factors; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Adults; Developmental dyslexia; Memory for intentions test; Prospective memory; Prospective memory questionnaire