title: The loss of photosynthetic pathways in the plastid and nuclear genomes of the non-photosynthetic mycoheterotrophic eudicot Monotropa hypopitys.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Chloroplasts of most plants are responsible for photosynthesis and contain a conserved set of about 110 genes that encode components of housekeeping gene expression machinery and photosynthesis-related functions. Heterotrophic plants obtaining nutrients from other organisms and their plastid genomes represent model systems in which to study the effects of relaxed selective pressure on photosynthetic function. The most evident is a reduction in the size and gene content of the plastome, which correlates with the loss of genes encoding photosynthetic machinery which become unnecessary. Transition to a non-photosynthetic lifestyle is expected also to relax the selective pressure on photosynthetic machinery in the nuclear genome, however, the corresponding changes are less known.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Here we report the complete sequence of the plastid genome of Monotropa hypopitys, an achlorophyllous obligately mycoheterotrophic plant belonging to the family Ericaceae. The plastome of M. hypopitys is greatly reduced in size (35,336 bp) and lacks the typical quadripartite structure with two single-copy regions and an inverted repeat. Only 45 genes remained presumably intact- those encoding ribosomal proteins, ribosomal and transfer RNA and housekeeping genes infA, matK, accD and clpP. The clpP and accD genes probably remain functional, although their sequences are highly diverged. The sets of genes for ribosomal protein and transfer RNA are incomplete relative to chloroplasts of a photosynthetic plant. Comparison of the plastid genomes of two subspecies-level isolates of M. hypopitys revealed major structural rearrangements associated with repeat-driven recombination and the presence of isolate-specific tRNA genes. Analysis of the M. hypopitys transcriptome by RNA-Seq showed the absence of expression of nuclear-encoded components of photosystem I and II reaction center proteins, components of cytochrome b6f complex, ATP synthase, ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase components, as well as chlorophyll from protoporphyrin IX biosynthesis pathway.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  With the complete loss of genes related to photosynthesis, NADH dehydrogenase, plastid-encoded RNA polymerase and ATP synthase, the M. hypopitys plastid genome is among the most functionally reduced ones characteristic of obligate non-photosynthetic parasitic species. Analysis of the M. hypopitys transcriptome revealed coordinated evolution of the nuclear and plastome genomes and the loss of photosynthesis-related functions in both genomes.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia. nravin@biengi.ac.ru.
authors.forename: Nikolai V
authors.initials: NV
authors.lastname: Ravin
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
authors.forename: Eugeny V
authors.initials: EV
authors.lastname: Gruzdev
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
authors.forename: Alexey V
authors.initials: AV
authors.lastname: Beletsky
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
authors.forename: Alexander M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Mazur
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
authors.forename: Egor B
authors.initials: EB
authors.lastname: Prokhortchouk
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
authors.forename: Mikhail A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Filyushin
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
authors.forename: Elena Z
authors.initials: EZ
authors.lastname: Kochieva
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
authors.forename: Vitaly V
authors.initials: VV
authors.lastname: Kadnikov
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
authors.forename: Andrey V
authors.initials: AV
authors.lastname: Mardanov
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.
authors.forename: Konstantin G
authors.initials: KG
authors.lastname: Skryabin
mesh_terms: D000595:Amino Acid Sequence; D005075:Biological Evolution; D029791:Ericaceae / Q000235:genetics*; D018745:Genome, Plant / Q000235:genetics*; D054627:Genome, Plastid / Q000235:genetics*; D010788:Photosynthesis / Q000235:genetics*; D010802:Phylogeny; D010940:Plant Proteins / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics* / Q000378:metabolism; D016415:Sequence Alignment
chemical_list: D010940:Plant Proteins
keywords: Chloroplast genome; Gene loss; Mycoheterotrophy; Parasitic plant; Photosynthesis; Transcriptome