title: Use of sonic tomography to detect and quantify wood decay in living trees.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Field methodology and image analysis protocols using acoustic tomography were developed and evaluated as a tool to estimate the amount of internal decay and damage of living trees, with special attention to tropical rainforest trees with irregular trunk shapes.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Living trunks of a diversity of tree species in tropical rainforests in the Republic of Panama were scanned using an Argus Electronic PiCUS 3 Sonic Tomograph and evaluated for the amount and patterns of internal decay. A protocol using ImageJ analysis software was used to quantify the proportions of intact and compromised wood. The protocols provide replicable estimates of internal decay and cavities for trees of varying shapes, wood density, and bark thickness.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Sonic tomography, coupled with image analysis, provides an efficient, noninvasive approach to evaluate decay patterns and structural integrity of even irregularly shaped living trees.
authors.affiliation: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panama; Environmental Studies Department, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High St., Santa Cruz, California 95064 USA.
authors.forename: Gregory S
authors.initials: GS
authors.lastname: Gilbert
authors.affiliation: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: Javier O
authors.initials: JO
authors.lastname: Ballesteros
authors.affiliation: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: Cesar A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Barrios-Rodriguez
authors.affiliation: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: Ernesto F
authors.initials: EF
authors.lastname: Bonadies
authors.affiliation: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: Marjorie L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Cedeño-Sánchez
authors.affiliation: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: Nohely J
authors.initials: NJ
authors.lastname: Fossatti-Caballero
authors.affiliation: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: Mariam M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Trejos-Rodríguez
authors.affiliation: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: José Moises
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Pérez-Suñiga
authors.affiliation: Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Ancón, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: Katharine S
authors.initials: KS
authors.lastname: Holub-Young
authors.affiliation: Environmental Studies Department, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High St., Santa Cruz, California 95064 USA.
authors.forename: Laura A W
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Henn
authors.affiliation: Environmental Studies Department, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High St., Santa Cruz, California 95064 USA.
authors.forename: Jennifer B
authors.initials: JB
authors.lastname: Thompson
authors.affiliation: Watsonville High School, 250 East Beach St., Watsonville, California 95076 USA.
authors.forename: Cesar G
authors.initials: CG
authors.lastname: García-López
authors.affiliation: Watsonville High School, 250 East Beach St., Watsonville, California 95076 USA.
authors.forename: Amanda C
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: Romo
authors.affiliation: Watsonville High School, 250 East Beach St., Watsonville, California 95076 USA.
authors.forename: Daniel C
authors.initials: DC
authors.lastname: Johnston
authors.affiliation: Watsonville High School, 250 East Beach St., Watsonville, California 95076 USA.
authors.forename: Pablo P
authors.initials: PP
authors.lastname: Barrick
authors.affiliation: Instituto Alberto Einstein, Apartado 6705, Panamá, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: Fulvia A
authors.initials: FA
authors.lastname: Jordan
authors.affiliation: Instituto Alberto Einstein, Apartado 6705, Panamá, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: Shiran
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Hershcovich
authors.affiliation: Instituto Alberto Einstein, Apartado 6705, Panamá, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: Natalie
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Russo
authors.affiliation: Academia Interamericana de Panamá, Boulevard Costa del Este, Panamá, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: Juan David
authors.initials: JD
authors.lastname: Sánchez
authors.affiliation: Academia Interamericana de Panamá, Boulevard Costa del Este, Panamá, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: Juan Pablo
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Fábrega
authors.affiliation: Athens Academy, 1281 Spartan Lane, Athens, Georgia 30606 USA.
authors.forename: Raleigh
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Lumpkin
authors.affiliation: Athens Academy, 1281 Spartan Lane, Athens, Georgia 30606 USA.
authors.forename: Hunter A
authors.initials: HA
authors.lastname: McWilliams
authors.affiliation: Athens Academy, 1281 Spartan Lane, Athens, Georgia 30606 USA.
authors.forename: Kathleen N
authors.initials: KN
authors.lastname: Chester
authors.affiliation: Lyons Community School, 223 Graham Ave., Brooklyn, New York 11206 USA.
authors.forename: Alana C
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: Burgos
authors.affiliation: Centro Educativo Monseñor Francisco Beckmann, Los Cumbres, Panamá, Republic of Panama.
authors.forename: E Beatriz
authors.initials: EB
authors.lastname: Wong
authors.affiliation: Biology Department, Cabrillo College, 6500 Soquel Drive, Aptos, California 95003 USA.
authors.forename: Jonathan H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Diab
authors.affiliation: Biology Department, Cabrillo College, 6500 Soquel Drive, Aptos, California 95003 USA.
authors.forename: Sonia A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Renteria
authors.affiliation: Environmental Studies Department, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High St., Santa Cruz, California 95064 USA.
authors.forename: Jennifer T
authors.initials: JT
authors.lastname: Harrower
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095 USA.
authors.forename: Douglas A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Hooton
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Health Science, 150 Green St., University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602 USA.
authors.forename: Travis C
authors.initials: TC
authors.lastname: Glenn
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences and Museum of Natural Science, Louisiana State University, 202 Life Sciences Building, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 USA.
authors.forename: Brant C
authors.initials: BC
authors.lastname: Faircloth
authors.affiliation: Environmental Studies Department, University of California, Santa Cruz, 1156 High St., Santa Cruz, California 95064 USA; Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095 USA.
authors.forename: Stephen P
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: Hubbell
keywords: Argus PiCUS 3 Sonic Tomograph; ImageJ; acoustic tomography; tropical trees