title: Cyanotoxins: producing organisms, occurrence, toxicity, mechanism of action and human health toxicological risk evaluation.
abstract: Cyanobacteria were present on the earth 3.5 billion years ago; since then they have colonized almost all terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. They produce a high number of bioactive molecules, among which some are cyanotoxins. Cyanobacterial growth at high densities, forming blooms, is increasing in extension and frequency, following anthropogenic activities and climate changes, giving rise to some concern for human health and animal life exposed to cyanotoxins. Numerous cases of lethal poisonings have been associated with cyanotoxins ingestion in wild animal and livestock. In humans few episodes of lethal or severe human poisonings have been recorded after acute or short-term exposure, but the repeated/chronic exposure to low cyanotoxin levels remains a critical issue. The properties of the most frequently detected cyanotoxins (namely, microcystins, nodularins, cylindrospermopsin and neurotoxins) are here critically reviewed, describing for each toxin the available information on producing organisms, biosynthesis/genetic and occurrence, with a focus on the toxicological profile (including kinetics, acute systemic toxicity, mechanism and mode of action, local effects, repeated toxicity, genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, reproductive toxicity; human health effects and epidemiological studies; animal poisoning) with the derivation of health-based values and considerations on the risks for human health.
authors.affiliation: Environment and Health Department, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161, Rome, Italy.
authors.forename: Franca M
authors.initials: FM
authors.lastname: Buratti
authors.affiliation: Environment and Health Department, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161, Rome, Italy.
authors.forename: Maura
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Manganelli
authors.affiliation: Environment and Health Department, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161, Rome, Italy.
authors.forename: Susanna
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Vichi
authors.affiliation: Research Certification and Control Division, INAIL, Via Fontana Candida 1, Monteporzio Catone, Rome, Italy.
authors.forename: Mara
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Stefanelli
authors.affiliation: Environment and Health Department, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161, Rome, Italy.
authors.forename: Simona
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Scardala
authors.affiliation: Environment and Health Department, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161, Rome, Italy. emanuela.testai@iss.it.
authors.forename: Emanuela
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Testai
authors.affiliation: Environment and Health Department, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, 00161, Rome, Italy.
authors.forename: Enzo
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Funari
mesh_terms: D000470:Alkaloids; D000818:Animals; D001427:Bacterial Toxins / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000633:toxicity*; D018556:Crops, Agricultural; D000458:Cyanobacteria / Q000378:metabolism*; D000087522:Cyanobacteria Toxins; D060766:Drinking Water; D005506:Food Contamination; D006801:Humans; D008387:Marine Toxins / Q000378:metabolism / Q000633:toxicity; D052998:Microcystins / Q000378:metabolism / Q000633:toxicity; D009498:Neurotoxins / Q000633:toxicity; D010456:Peptides, Cyclic / Q000633:toxicity; D018570:Risk Assessment / Q000379:methods*; D017747:Seafood; D018675:Toxicity Tests / Q000379:methods; D014498:Uracil / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000633:toxicity
chemical_list: D000470:Alkaloids; D001427:Bacterial Toxins; D000087522:Cyanobacteria Toxins; D060766:Drinking Water; D008387:Marine Toxins; D052998:Microcystins; D009498:Neurotoxins; D010456:Peptides, Cyclic; C063998:nodularin; C089595:cylindrospermopsin; D014498:Uracil
keywords: Cyanobacteria; Cyanotoxins; Mechanism of action; Toxicological risk assessment