title: Snake fungal disease: an emerging threat to wild snakes.
abstract: Since 2006, there has been a marked increase in the number of reports of severe and often fatal fungal skin infections in wild snakes in the eastern USA. The emerging condition, referred to as snake fungal disease (SFD), was initially documented in rattlesnakes, where the infections were believed to pose a risk to the viability of affected populations. The disease is caused by Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola, a fungus recently split from a complex of fungi long referred to as the Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii (CANV). Here we review the current state of knowledge about O. ophiodiicola and SFD. In addition, we provide original findings which demonstrate that O. ophiodiicola is widely distributed in eastern North America, has a broad host range, is the predominant cause of fungal skin infections in wild snakes and often causes mild infections in snakes emerging from hibernation. This new information, together with what is already available in the scientific literature, advances our knowledge of the cause, pathogenesis and ecology of SFD. However, additional research is necessary to elucidate the factors driving the emergence of this disease and develop strategies to mitigate its impacts.This article is part of the themed issue 'Tackling emerging fungal threats to animal health, food security and ecosystem resilience'.
authors.affiliation: US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA jlorch@usgs.gov.
authors.forename: Jeffrey M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Lorch
authors.affiliation: US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA.
authors.forename: Susan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Knowles
authors.affiliation: US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA.
authors.forename: Julia S
authors.initials: JS
authors.lastname: Lankton
authors.affiliation: New York Center for Turtle Rehabilitation and Conservation, Inc., Narrowburg, NY 12764, USA.
authors.forename: Kathy
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Michell
authors.affiliation: Minnesota Department of Natural Resources-Nongame Wildlife Program, Saint Paul, MN 55155, USA.
authors.forename: Jaime L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Edwards
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, Whitewater, WI 53190, USA.
authors.forename: Joshua M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Kapfer
authors.affiliation: Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 101 South Webster Street, Madison, WI 53707, USA.
authors.forename: Richard A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Staffen
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, Stevens Point, WI 54481, USA.
authors.forename: Erik R
authors.initials: ER
authors.lastname: Wild
authors.affiliation: US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA.
authors.forename: Katie Z
authors.initials: KZ
authors.lastname: Schmidt
authors.affiliation: US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA.
authors.forename: Anne E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Ballmann
authors.affiliation: Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department, Rutland, VT 05701, USA.
authors.forename: Doug
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Blodgett
authors.affiliation: Biology Department, Stetson University, DeLand, FL 32723, USA.
authors.forename: Terence M
authors.initials: TM
authors.lastname: Farrell
authors.affiliation: US Geological Survey-Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, Lafayette, LA 70506, USA.
authors.forename: Brad M
authors.initials: BM
authors.lastname: Glorioso
authors.affiliation: Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
authors.forename: Lisa A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Last
authors.affiliation: Department of Forestry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA.
authors.forename: Steven J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Price
authors.affiliation: Animal Health Diagnostic Center, Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
authors.forename: Krysten L
authors.initials: KL
authors.lastname: Schuler
authors.affiliation: Minnesota Department of Natural Resources-Nongame Wildlife Program, Saint Paul, MN 55155, USA.
authors.forename: Christopher E
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.affiliation: College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
authors.forename: James F X
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Wellehan
authors.affiliation: US Geological Survey-National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA.
authors.forename: David S
authors.initials: DS
authors.lastname: Blehert
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001203:Ascomycota / Q000502:physiology*; D002170:Canada / Q000453:epidemiology; D002912:Chrysosporium / Q000502:physiology*; D003881:Dermatomycoses / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology / Q000662:veterinary*; D058507:Host Specificity; D015995:Prevalence; D012911:Snakes; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology
keywords: North America; Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola; dermatitis; emerging disease; fungal infection; snake