title: Particulates and noise exposure during bicycle, bus and car commuting: A study in three European cities.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In order to curb traffic-related air pollution and its impact on the physical environment, contemporary city commuters are encouraged to shift from private car use to active or public transport modes. However, personal exposures to particulate matter (PM), black carbon and noise during commuting may be substantial. Therefore, studies comparing exposures during recommended modes of transport versus car trips are needed.
  
  
  METHODS
  We measured personal exposure to various-sized particulates, soot, and noise during commuting by bicycle, bus and car in three European cities: Helsinki in Finland, Rotterdam in the Netherlands and Thessaloniki in Greece using portable monitoring devices. We monitored commonly travelled routes in these cities.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The total number of one-way trips yielding data on any of the measured parameters were 84, 72, 94 and 69 for bicycle, bus, closed-window car and open-window car modes, respectively. The highest mean PM2.5(85µg/m3), PM10(131µg/m3), black carbon (10.9µg/m3) and noise (75dBA) levels were recorded on the bus, bus (again), open-window car and bicycle modes, respectively, all in Thessaloniki, PM and soot concentrations were generally higher during biking and taking a bus than during a drive in a a car with closed windows. Ratios of bike:car PM10ranged from 1.1 in Thessaloniki to 2.6 in Helsinki, while bus:car ratios ranged from in 1.0 in Rotterdam to 5.6 in Thessaloniki. Higher noise levels were mostly recorded during bicycle rides.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Based on our study, active- and public-transport commuters are often at risk of higher air pollution and noise exposure than private car users. This should be taken into account in urban transportation planning.
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Protection, THL - National Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 95, FI-70701 Kuopio, Finland. Electronic address: enembe.okokon@thl.fi.
authors.forename: Enembe O
authors.initials: EO
authors.lastname: Okokon
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Protection, THL - National Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 95, FI-70701 Kuopio, Finland. Electronic address: tarja.yli-tuomi@thl.fi.
authors.forename: Tarja
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Yli-Tuomi
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Protection, THL - National Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 95, FI-70701 Kuopio, Finland. Electronic address: anu.turunen@thl.fi.
authors.forename: Anu W
authors.initials: AW
authors.lastname: Turunen
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Protection, THL - National Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 95, FI-70701 Kuopio, Finland. Electronic address: pekka.taimisto@thl.fi.
authors.forename: Pekka
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Taimisto
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Protection, THL - National Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 95, FI-70701 Kuopio, Finland. Electronic address: arto.pennanen@thl.fi.
authors.forename: Arto
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Pennanen
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Applied Thermodynamics, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece. Electronic address: vouitsis@auth.gr.
authors.forename: Ilias
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Vouitsis
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Applied Thermodynamics, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece. Electronic address: zisis@auth.gr.
authors.forename: Zissis
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Samaras
authors.affiliation: TNO, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands. Electronic address: marita.voogt@tno.nl.
authors.forename: Marita
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Voogt
authors.affiliation: TNO, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research, Utrecht, The Netherlands. Electronic address: menno.keuken@tno.nl.
authors.forename: Menno
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Keuken
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Protection, THL - National Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O. Box 95, FI-70701 Kuopio, Finland. Electronic address: timo.lanki@thl.fi.
authors.forename: Timo
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Lanki
mesh_terms: D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000032:analysis; D001336:Automobiles; D001642:Bicycling; D002947:Cities; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000032:analysis*; D005387:Finland; D006115:Greece; D006801:Humans; D018986:Motor Vehicles; D009426:Netherlands; D009622:Noise; D052638:Particulate Matter / Q000032:analysis*; D014186:Transportation; D001335:Vehicle Emissions / Q000032:analysis*
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D052638:Particulate Matter; D001335:Vehicle Emissions
keywords: Exposure; Noise; Particulate matter; Road traffic; Soot; Transport mode