title: Revisiting the refeeding syndrome: Results of a systematic review.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Although described >70 y ago, the refeeding syndrome (RFS) remains understudied with lack of standardized definition and treatment recommendations. The aim of this systematic review was to gather evidence regarding standardized definition, incidence rate and time course of occurrence, association with adverse clinical outcomes, risk factors, and therapeutic strategies to prevent or treat this condition.
  
  
  METHODS
  We searched MEDLINE and EMBASE for interventional and observational clinical trials focusing on RFS, excluding case reports and reviews. We extracted data based on a predefined case report form and assessed bias.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Of 2207 potential abstracts, 45 records with a total of 6608 patients were included (3 interventional trials, 16 studies focusing on anorexic patients). Definitions for RFS were highly heterogenous with most studies relying on blood electrolyte disturbances only and others also including clinical symptoms. Incidence rates varied between 0% and 80%, depending on the definition and patient population studied. Occurrence was mostly within the first 72 h of start of nutritional therapy. Most of the risk factors were in accordance with National Institute for Health and Care Excellence guidelines, with older age and enteral feeding being additional factors. There was no strong evidence regarding association of RFS and adverse outcomes, as well as regarding preventive measures and treatment algorithms.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This systematic review focusing on RFS found consensus regarding risk factors and timing of occurrence, but wide variations regarding definition, reported incidence rates, preventive measures and treatment recommendations. Further research to fill this gap is urgently needed.
authors.affiliation: Medical University Department, Clinic for Endocrinology/Metabolism/Clinical Nutrition, Kantonsspital Aarau, Aarau and Medical Faculty of the University of Basel, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Natalie
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Friedli
authors.affiliation: Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Clinical Nutrition, Bern University Hospital, and University of Bern, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Zeno
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Stanga
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, Medical Faculty and Faculty Hospital Hradec Kralove, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic.
authors.forename: Lubos
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Sobotka
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, St Mark's Hospital, Harrow, England.
authors.forename: Alison
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Culkin
authors.affiliation: Clinical Nutrition Unit, Rigshospitalet University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark.
authors.forename: Jens
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Kondrup
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Medicine, Sapienza University, Rome, Italy.
authors.forename: Alessandro
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Laviano
authors.affiliation: Medical University Department, Clinic for Endocrinology/Metabolism/Clinical Nutrition, Kantonsspital Aarau, Aarau and Medical Faculty of the University of Basel, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Beat
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Mueller
authors.affiliation: Medical University Department, Clinic for Endocrinology/Metabolism/Clinical Nutrition, Kantonsspital Aarau, Aarau and Medical Faculty of the University of Basel, Switzerland. Electronic address: Schuetzph@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Philipp
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Schuetz
mesh_terms: D016208:Databases, Factual; D004750:Enteral Nutrition / Q000379:methods*; D006801:Humans; D015201:Meta-Analysis as Topic; D064887:Observational Studies as Topic; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic; D055677:Refeeding Syndrome / Q000628:therapy*; D012307:Risk Factors; D014883:Water-Electrolyte Imbalance
keywords: Hypophosphatemia; Nutritional support; Nutritional therapy