title: Within-country variation of salt intake assessed via urinary excretion in Japan: a multilevel analysis in all 47 prefectures.
abstract: Salt intake in Japan remains high; therefore, exploring within-country variation in salt intake and its cause is an important step in the establishment of salt reduction strategies. However, no nationwide evaluation of this variation has been conducted by urinalysis. We aimed to clarify whether within-country variation in salt intake exists in Japan after adjusting for individual characteristics. Healthy men (n=1027) and women (n=1046) aged 20-69 years were recruited from all 47 prefectures of Japan. Twenty-four-hour sodium excretion was estimated using three spot urine samples collected on three nonconsecutive days. The study area was categorized into 12 regions defined by the National Health and Nutrition Survey Japan. Within-country variation in sodium excretion was estimated as a population (region)-level variance using a multilevel model with random intercepts, with adjustment for individual biological, socioeconomic and dietary characteristics. Estimated 24 h sodium excretion was 204.8 mmol per day in men and 155.7 mmol per day in women. Sodium excretion was high in the Northeastern region. However, population-level variance was extremely small after adjusting for individual characteristics (0.8 and 2% of overall variance in men and women, respectively) compared with individual-level variance (99.2 and 98% of overall variance in men and women, respectively). Among individual characteristics, greater body mass index, living with a spouse and high miso-soup intake were associated with high sodium excretion in both sexes. Within-country variation in salt intake in Japan was extremely small compared with individual-level variation. Salt reduction strategies for Japan should be comprehensive and should not address the small within-country differences in intake.
authors.affiliation: Department of Social and Preventive Epidemiology, Division of Health Sciences and Nursing, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
authors.forename: Ken
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Uechi
authors.affiliation: Department of Social and Preventive Epidemiology, School of Public Health, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.|Interfaculty Initiative in Information Studies, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
authors.forename: Keiko
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Asakura
authors.affiliation: Ikurien-naka, Ibaraki, Japan.
authors.forename: Shizuko
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Masayasu
authors.affiliation: Department of Social and Preventive Epidemiology, School of Public Health, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
authors.forename: Satoshi
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Sasaki
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007564:Japan; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D017673:Sodium Chloride, Dietary / Q000652:urine*; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D017673:Sodium Chloride, Dietary