title: Anthropogenic ecosystem disturbance and the recovery debt.
abstract: Ecosystem recovery from anthropogenic disturbances, either without human intervention or assisted by ecological restoration, is increasingly occurring worldwide. As ecosystems progress through recovery, it is important to estimate any resulting deficit in biodiversity and functions. Here we use data from 3,035 sampling plots worldwide, to quantify the interim reduction of biodiversity and functions occurring during the recovery process (that is, the 'recovery debt'). Compared with reference levels, recovering ecosystems run annual deficits of 46-51% for organism abundance, 27-33% for species diversity, 32-42% for carbon cycling and 31-41% for nitrogen cycling. Our results are consistent across biomes but not across degrading factors. Our results suggest that recovering and restored ecosystems have less abundance, diversity and cycling of carbon and nitrogen than 'undisturbed' ecosystems, and that even if complete recovery is reached, an interim recovery debt will accumulate. Under such circumstances, increasing the quantity of less-functional ecosystems through ecological restoration and offsetting are inadequate alternatives to ecosystem protection.
authors.affiliation: Basque Center for Climate Change-BC3, Edif. Sede 1, 1°, Parque Tecnológico UPV, Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain.|IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48008 Bilbao, Spain.|Fundación Internacional para la Restauración de Ecosistemas, 28008 Madrid, Spain.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Moreno-Mateos
authors.affiliation: Department of Economics and Finance, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82071, USA.
authors.forename: Edward B
authors.initials: EB
authors.lastname: Barbier
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois 60115, USA.
authors.forename: Peter C
authors.initials: PC
authors.lastname: Jones
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois 60115, USA.|Institute for the Study of the Environment, Sustainability and Energy, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois 60115, USA.
authors.forename: Holly P
authors.initials: HP
authors.lastname: Jones
authors.affiliation: Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA.|Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive (UMR 5175, Campus CNRS), 34293 Montpellier, France.
authors.forename: James
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Aronson
authors.affiliation: School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 2PS, UK.
authors.forename: José A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: López-López
authors.affiliation: Baltic Sea Centre, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden.
authors.forename: Michelle L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: McCrackin
authors.affiliation: Fundación Internacional para la Restauración de Ecosistemas, 28008 Madrid, Spain.|Natura y Ecosistemas Mexicanos A.C., Mexico DF 01000, Mexico.
authors.forename: Paula
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Meli
authors.affiliation: Centre for Biodiversity Theory and Modeling, Station D'Ecologie Experimentale du CNRS, 09200 Moulis, France.|Centre INRA de Dijon, 21000 Dijon, France.
authors.forename: Daniel
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Montoya
authors.affiliation: Fundación Internacional para la Restauración de Ecosistemas, 28008 Madrid, Spain.|Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida, Universidad de Alcalá, 28871 Alcalá de Henares, Spain.
authors.forename: José M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Rey Benayas
mesh_terms: D000383:Agriculture; D044822:Biodiversity; D057486:Carbon Cycle; D003247:Conservation of Natural Resources; D017753:Ecosystem; D065928:Forests; D065948:Grassland; D008906:Mining; D058458:Nitrogen Cycle; D053833:Wetlands