title: Abuse and Misuse of Pregabalin and Gabapentin.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Gabapentinoid (pregabalin and gabapentin) abuse is increasingly being reported.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To assess the extent of gabapentinoid abuse, characteristics of typical abusers, patterns of abuse, and potential harms in order to bring this trend to providers' attention.
  
  
  METHODS
  A systematic review of MEDLINE, Cochrane Library, ClinicalTrials.gov, and US FDA data, indexed through 28 July 2016, utilizing the following searches: pregabalin OR gabapentin OR gabapentinoid AND one of the following: abuse, misuse, overdose, or substance-related disorders[MESH], was conducted. Additional studies were identified through review of references. English-language epidemiological studies, clinical studies, and case reports/series of gabapentinoid abuse/misuse/overdose were included. The authors reached consensus regarding study inclusion after full-text review. The body of literature was assessed for bias qualitatively.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Fifty-nine studies were included in this systematic review (24 epidemiological, three clinical abuse liability, 16 abuse/misuse/dependence case reports/series, 17 acute overdose case reports/series-one included both an epidemiological study and case series and was included in both counts). Analysis of these studies indicates increasing numbers of patients are self-administering higher than recommended doses to achieve euphoric highs. In the general population, a 1.6% prevalence of gabapentinoid abuse was observed, whereas prevalence ranged from 3% to 68% among opioid abusers. An international adverse event database identified 11,940 reports of gabapentinoid abuse from 2004-2015, with >75% reported since 2012. Risk factors include a history of substance abuse, particularly opioids, and psychiatric co-morbidities. While effects of excessively high doses are generally non-lethal, gabapentinoids are increasingly being identified in post-mortem toxicology analyses.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Evidence suggests gabapentinoids possess potential for abuse, particularly in individuals with a history of opioid abuse, and reports of such abuse are increasingly being documented. Prescribers should be aware of high-risk populations and monitor for signs of abuse.
authors.affiliation: College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., MC 6220, San Antonio, TX, 78229-3900, USA. evoy@uthscsa.edu.|University Health System, 1055 Ada Street, San Antonio, TX, 78223, USA. evoy@uthscsa.edu.
authors.forename: Kirk E
authors.initials: KE
authors.lastname: Evoy
authors.affiliation: College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., MC 6220, San Antonio, TX, 78229-3900, USA.
authors.forename: Megan D
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Morrison
authors.affiliation: College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., MC 6220, San Antonio, TX, 78229-3900, USA.
authors.forename: Stephen R
authors.initials: SR
authors.lastname: Saklad
mesh_terms: D000588:Amines / Q000008:administration & dosage; D000700:Analgesics / Q000008:administration & dosage; D003509:Cyclohexanecarboxylic Acids / Q000008:administration & dosage; D062787:Drug Overdose / Q000453:epidemiology; D000077206:Gabapentin; D006801:Humans; D000069583:Pregabalin / Q000008:administration & dosage; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology*; D005680:gamma-Aminobutyric Acid / Q000008:administration & dosage
chemical_list: D000588:Amines; D000700:Analgesics; D003509:Cyclohexanecarboxylic Acids; D000069583:Pregabalin; D005680:gamma-Aminobutyric Acid; D000077206:Gabapentin