title: Alcohol consumers' attention to warning labels and brand information on alcohol packaging: Findings from cross-sectional and experimental studies.
abstract: Alcohol warning labels have a limited effect on drinking behavior, potentially because people devote minimal attention to them. We report findings from two studies in which we measured the extent to which alcohol consumers attend to warning labels on alcohol packaging, and aimed to identify if increased attention to warning labels is associated with motivation to change drinking behavior.
  
  
  
  Study 1 (N = 60) was an exploratory cross-sectional study in which we used eye-tracking to measure visual attention to brand and health information on alcohol and soda containers. In study 2 (N = 120) we manipulated motivation to reduce drinking using an alcohol brief intervention (vs control intervention) and measured heavy drinkers' attention to branding and warning labels with the same eye-tracking paradigm as in study 1. Then, in a separate task we experimentally manipulated attention by drawing a brightly colored border around health (or brand) information before measuring participants' self-reported drinking intentions for the subsequent week.
  
  
  
  Study 1 showed that participants paid minimal attention to warning labels (7% of viewing time). Participants who were motivated to reduce drinking paid less attention to alcohol branding and alcohol warning labels. Results from study 2 showed that the alcohol brief intervention decreased attention to branding compared to the control condition, but it did not affect attention to warning labels. Furthermore, the experimental manipulation of attention to health or brand information did not influence drinking intentions for the subsequent week.
  
  
  
  Alcohol consumers allocate minimal attention to warning labels on alcohol packaging and even if their attention is directed to these warning labels, this has no impact on their drinking intentions. The lack of attention to warning labels, even among people who actively want to cut down, suggests that there is room for improvement in the content of health warnings on alcohol packaging.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, UK and the UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies (UKCTAS), Liverpool, L69 7ZA, UK. iker@liv.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Inge
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Kersbergen
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Liverpool, UK and the UK Centre for Tobacco and Alcohol Studies (UKCTAS), Liverpool, L69 7ZA, UK.
authors.forename: Matt
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Field
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000329:Advertising; D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000523:psychology*; D000435:Alcoholic Intoxication; D000438:Alcohols; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D015438:Health Behavior; D006801:Humans; D033182:Intention; D008297:Male; D009042:Motivation; D011356:Product Labeling; D019064:Product Packaging; D006113:United Kingdom; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D000438:Alcohols
keywords: Alcohol; Alcohol packaging; Eye-tracking; Health warnings; Motivation to reduce drinking; Visual attention