title: Stereotype contrast effect on neuropsychological assessment of contact-sport players: The moderating role of locus of control.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Diagnosis threat has been shown to produce detrimental effects on neuropsychological performance in individuals with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI). Focusing on contact-sport players who are at great risk of mTBI, our study was designed to examine the moderating role of internal locus of control. Specifically, we predicted that following diagnosis threat (reminder of their risk of sustaining mTBI and of its consequences), low-internal contact-sport players would underperform (assimilation to the stereotype), while their high-internal counterparts would outperform (contrast effect). We predicted that effort and anxiety would mediate these effects.
  
  
  METHODS
  Contact-sport players and non-contact-sport players ("control" group) were randomly assigned to one condition (diagnosis threat or neutral) and then completed attention, executive, episodic memory, and working memory tasks. Regarding mediating and moderating variables, participants rated their effort and anxiety (self-report measures) and completed the Levenson (1974) locus of control scale. Regression-based path analyses were carried out to examine the direct and indirect effects.
  
  
  RESULTS
  As expected, there was no effect of condition on the control group's performance. Contact-sport players with moderate and high levels of internal control outperformed (contrast effect) on executive and episodic memory tasks following diagnosis threat compared to the neutral condition. Additionally, the less anxiety moderate- and high-internal contact-sport participants felt, the better they performed on episodic memory and executive tasks. However, contact-sport players low in internal control did not underperform (assimilation effect) under diagnosis threat.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results suggest that diagnosis threat instructions may have challenged moderate- and high-internal contact-sport participants, leading them to outperform compared to the neutral condition. Individuals who have moderate and high levels of internal locus of control may have higher performance under diagnosis threat compared to the neutral condition because of their feeling of control over their cognitive performance.
authors.affiliation: a Psychology and Neurosciences of Cognition Unit , University of Liège , Liège , Belgium.
authors.forename: Megan
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Fresson
authors.affiliation: a Psychology and Neurosciences of Cognition Unit , University of Liège , Liège , Belgium.
authors.forename: Benoit
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Dardenne
authors.affiliation: a Psychology and Neurosciences of Cognition Unit , University of Liège , Liège , Belgium.
authors.forename: Marie
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Geurten
authors.affiliation: a Psychology and Neurosciences of Cognition Unit , University of Liège , Liège , Belgium.
authors.forename: Thierry
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Meulemans
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001007:Anxiety / Q000523:psychology; D001924:Brain Concussion / Q000175:diagnosis*; D004644:Emotions / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007389:Internal-External Control; D008297:Male; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D013177:Sports; D013240:Stereotyping; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Diagnosis threat; locus of control; neuropsychological assessment; sports-related concussion; stereotype threat