title: A Global Perspective on the Population Structure and Reproductive System of Phyllosticta citricarpa.
abstract: The citrus pathogen Phyllosticta citricarpa was first described 117 years ago in Australia; subsequently, from the summer rainfall citrus-growing regions in China, Africa, and South America; and, recently, the United States. Limited information is available on the pathogen's population structure, mode of reproduction, and introduction pathways, which were investigated by genotyping 383 isolates representing 12 populations from South Africa, the United States, Australia, China, and Brazil. Populations were genotyped using seven published and eight newly developed polymorphic simple-sequence repeat markers. The Chinese and Australian populations had the highest genetic diversities, whereas populations from Brazil, the United States, and South Africa exhibited characteristics of founder populations. The U.S. population was clonal. Based on principal coordinate and minimum spanning network analyses, the Chinese populations were distinct from the other populations. Population differentiation and clustering analyses revealed high connectivity and possibly linked introduction pathways between South Africa, Australia, and Brazil. With the exception of the clonal U.S. populations that only contained one mating type, all the other populations contained both mating types in a ratio that did not deviate significantly from 1:1. Although most populations exhibited sexual reproduction, linkage disequilibrium analyses indicated that asexual reproduction is important in the pathogen's life cycle.
authors.affiliation: First, twelfth, and thirteenth authors: Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; first, eleventh, and twelfth authors: Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa; second author: Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Building 116, Daley Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; third author: Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; fourth author: Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; fifth author: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Private Bag 4008, Narellan, NSW 2567, Australia; sixth author: Biotechnology Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; seventh and eighth authors: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred 33850; ninth author: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville; and tenth author: Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
authors.forename: E
authors.identifier: 0000-0003-4789-2299
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Carstens
authors.affiliation: First, twelfth, and thirteenth authors: Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; first, eleventh, and twelfth authors: Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa; second author: Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Building 116, Daley Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; third author: Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; fourth author: Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; fifth author: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Private Bag 4008, Narellan, NSW 2567, Australia; sixth author: Biotechnology Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; seventh and eighth authors: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred 33850; ninth author: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville; and tenth author: Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
authors.forename: C C
authors.initials: CC
authors.lastname: Linde
authors.affiliation: First, twelfth, and thirteenth authors: Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; first, eleventh, and twelfth authors: Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa; second author: Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Building 116, Daley Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; third author: Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; fourth author: Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; fifth author: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Private Bag 4008, Narellan, NSW 2567, Australia; sixth author: Biotechnology Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; seventh and eighth authors: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred 33850; ninth author: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville; and tenth author: Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Slabbert
authors.affiliation: First, twelfth, and thirteenth authors: Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; first, eleventh, and twelfth authors: Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa; second author: Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Building 116, Daley Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; third author: Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; fourth author: Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; fifth author: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Private Bag 4008, Narellan, NSW 2567, Australia; sixth author: Biotechnology Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; seventh and eighth authors: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred 33850; ninth author: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville; and tenth author: Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
authors.forename: A K
authors.initials: AK
authors.lastname: Miles
authors.affiliation: First, twelfth, and thirteenth authors: Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; first, eleventh, and twelfth authors: Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa; second author: Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Building 116, Daley Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; third author: Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; fourth author: Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; fifth author: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Private Bag 4008, Narellan, NSW 2567, Australia; sixth author: Biotechnology Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; seventh and eighth authors: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred 33850; ninth author: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville; and tenth author: Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
authors.forename: N J
authors.initials: NJ
authors.lastname: Donovan
authors.affiliation: First, twelfth, and thirteenth authors: Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; first, eleventh, and twelfth authors: Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa; second author: Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Building 116, Daley Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; third author: Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; fourth author: Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; fifth author: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Private Bag 4008, Narellan, NSW 2567, Australia; sixth author: Biotechnology Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; seventh and eighth authors: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred 33850; ninth author: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville; and tenth author: Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: First, twelfth, and thirteenth authors: Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; first, eleventh, and twelfth authors: Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa; second author: Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Building 116, Daley Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; third author: Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; fourth author: Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; fifth author: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Private Bag 4008, Narellan, NSW 2567, Australia; sixth author: Biotechnology Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; seventh and eighth authors: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred 33850; ninth author: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville; and tenth author: Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.affiliation: First, twelfth, and thirteenth authors: Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; first, eleventh, and twelfth authors: Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa; second author: Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Building 116, Daley Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; third author: Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; fourth author: Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; fifth author: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Private Bag 4008, Narellan, NSW 2567, Australia; sixth author: Biotechnology Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; seventh and eighth authors: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred 33850; ninth author: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville; and tenth author: Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
authors.forename: M M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Dewdney
authors.affiliation: First, twelfth, and thirteenth authors: Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; first, eleventh, and twelfth authors: Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa; second author: Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Building 116, Daley Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; third author: Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; fourth author: Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; fifth author: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Private Bag 4008, Narellan, NSW 2567, Australia; sixth author: Biotechnology Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; seventh and eighth authors: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred 33850; ninth author: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville; and tenth author: Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
authors.forename: J A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Rollins
authors.affiliation: First, twelfth, and thirteenth authors: Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; first, eleventh, and twelfth authors: Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa; second author: Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Building 116, Daley Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; third author: Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; fourth author: Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; fifth author: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Private Bag 4008, Narellan, NSW 2567, Australia; sixth author: Biotechnology Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; seventh and eighth authors: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred 33850; ninth author: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville; and tenth author: Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
authors.forename: C
authors.identifier: 0000-0003-3394-0659
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Glienke
authors.affiliation: First, twelfth, and thirteenth authors: Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; first, eleventh, and twelfth authors: Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa; second author: Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Building 116, Daley Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; third author: Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; fourth author: Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; fifth author: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Private Bag 4008, Narellan, NSW 2567, Australia; sixth author: Biotechnology Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; seventh and eighth authors: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred 33850; ninth author: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville; and tenth author: Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
authors.forename: G C
authors.initials: GC
authors.lastname: Schutte
authors.affiliation: First, twelfth, and thirteenth authors: Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; first, eleventh, and twelfth authors: Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa; second author: Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Building 116, Daley Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; third author: Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; fourth author: Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; fifth author: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Private Bag 4008, Narellan, NSW 2567, Australia; sixth author: Biotechnology Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; seventh and eighth authors: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred 33850; ninth author: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville; and tenth author: Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
authors.forename: P H
authors.initials: PH
authors.lastname: Fourie
authors.affiliation: First, twelfth, and thirteenth authors: Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; first, eleventh, and twelfth authors: Citrus Research International, PO Box 28, Nelspruit, 1200, South Africa; second author: Evolution, Ecology and Genetics, Research School of Biology, Building 116, Daley Rd, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; third author: Central Analytical Facilities, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7601, South Africa; fourth author: Centre for Plant Science, Queensland Alliance for Agricultural and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia; fifth author: New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Private Bag 4008, Narellan, NSW 2567, Australia; sixth author: Biotechnology Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China; seventh and eighth authors: Citrus Research and Education Center, University of Florida, Lake Alfred 33850; ninth author: Department of Plant Pathology, University of Florida, Gainesville; and tenth author: Department of Genetics, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: McLeod
mesh_terms: D001203:Ascomycota / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000502:physiology*; D001315:Australia; D001938:Brazil; D002681:China; D002957:Citrus / Q000382:microbiology*; D049770:Genes, Mating Type, Fungal / Q000235:genetics; D014644:Genetic Variation; D005828:Genetics, Population; D005838:Genotype; D005843:Geography; D018895:Microsatellite Repeats / Q000235:genetics; D010935:Plant Diseases / Q000382:microbiology*; D012100:Reproduction, Asexual; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA; D013019:South Africa; D014481:United States