title: Alternate policing strategies: Cost-effectiveness of cautioning for cannabis offences.
abstract: There is increasing international interest in alternatives to the use of arrest for minor drug offences. While Australia has been at the forefront in the provision of diversionary programs for minor drug offences there remain key gaps in knowledge about the cost-effectiveness of different approaches. Here we set out to assess the cost-effectiveness of cannabis cautioning schemes whereby police refer minor cannabis use and possession offenders to education and/or treatment instead of arresting and charging them.
  
  
  
  This study used a purpose built nation-wide online survey to evaluate cost-effectiveness of cannabis cautioning versus a traditional response for minor cannabis offences (arrest). The survey was completed by a self-selected group of detected cannabis offenders. The outcome measure was self-reported cannabis use days in the previous month post-intervention. Cost data included costs of policing, court, penalties, assessment, treatment and educational sessions. Propensity score weighting and doubly robust regression analyses were utilised to address differences between the groups.
  
  
  
  There were 195 respondents who reported being arrested for a cannabis possession/use offence and 355 who reported receiving a formal cannabis caution. After matching on a range of characteristics (age, prior criminal conviction, cannabis consumption, employment status, self-reported criminal activity prior to detection, severity of dependence) there was no statistically significant difference in cannabis use pre- and post-police intervention between the two groups(N=544). After matching and bootstrapping the costs there was a significant difference in costs; the mean cost for the charge group (net of fines) was $733 (SD 151) and $388 (SD 111) for the caution group.
  
  
  
  These results indicate that after matching on a range of relevant characteristics there were no differences across groups in the change in self-reported cannabis use days, but cannabis cautioning was less costly than charge/arrest. These results add to the evidence about the efficacy and desirability of alternatives to arrest both within Australia and abroad.
authors.affiliation: Drug Policy Modelling Program, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia. Electronic address: m.shanahan@unsw.edu.au.
authors.forename: Marian
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Shanahan
authors.affiliation: Drug Policy Modelling Program, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia.
authors.forename: Caitlin Elizabeth
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: Hughes
authors.affiliation: Drug Policy Modelling Program, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; Department of Criminology and Sociology, Middlesex University, The Burroughs, London NW4 4BT, UK.
authors.forename: Tim
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: McSweeney
authors.affiliation: RAND Center for Causal Inference,1200 South Hayes Street, Arlington, VA 22202-5050 USA.
authors.forename: Beth Ann
authors.initials: BA
authors.lastname: Griffin
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D001315:Australia; D003362:Cost-Benefit Analysis; D057237:Criminals / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D055030:Drug Users / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence*; D004335:Drug and Narcotic Control / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D035846:Law Enforcement / Q000379:methods*; D008297:Male; D008385:Marijuana Smoking / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence* / Q000517:prevention & control; D008875:Middle Aged; D016495:Police; D057566:Self Report; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Cannabis; Cannabis caution; Cost effectiveness analysis; Police diversion