title: Particulate Matter and Respiratory Symptoms among Adults Living in Windhoek, Namibia: A Cross Sectional Descriptive Study.
abstract: This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of respiratory symptoms and to assess respiratory health risks associated with Particulate Matter (PM) exposure among the residents of Windhoek, Namibia.Objectives:To measure particulate pollution concentration in Windhoek through monitoring of particulate matter concentration and to identify any associations between particulate pollution, individual location, and respiratory health among the Windhoek resident's.Methods:an adapted standardized self-administered questionnaire was used to collect respiratory health related data as well as previous exposure, while PM monitoring was done using the ASTM (American Standard Test Method) D1739 reference method.Results:A high prevalence was observed for cough (43%), breathlessness (25%), and asthma (11.2%). PM was found to be a significant risk factor for episodes of coughing and phlegm, while high PM exposure category had an increased odds ratio (OR) for episodes of phlegm and cough (OR: 2.5, 95% CI (95% confidence intervals): 0.8-8.0). No association was observed between location and respiratory health outcomes.Conclusions:The study found high levels of PM concentration across all Windhoek suburbs which were above the German, American, and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Enactment of legislation relating to the control and monitoring of PM related emissions at the point of generation is required at both a country and city level.
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Sciences, Namibia University of Science and Technology, Private Bag 13388, Windhoek 9000, Namibia. nhamatui@nust.na.
authors.forename: Ndinomholo
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Hamatui
authors.affiliation: Laureate Online Education, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK. caryl.beynon@online.liverpool.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Caryl
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Beynon
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000032:analysis*; D000397:Air Pollution / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000032:analysis; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009276:Namibia / Q000453:epidemiology; D016017:Odds Ratio; D052638:Particulate Matter / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000032:analysis*; D015995:Prevalence; D012140:Respiratory Tract Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D012307:Risk Factors; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D052638:Particulate Matter
keywords: Namibia; PM exposure; Windhoek; residential location; respiratory symptoms