title: Run, hide, or fight: anti-predation strategies in endangered red-nosed cuxiú (Chiropotes albinasus, Pitheciidae) in southeastern Amazonia.
abstract: Although primate predation is rarely observed, a series of primate anti-predation strategies have been described. Energetic costs of such strategies can vary from high-cost mobbing, via less costly alarm calling, to low-cost furtive concealment. Here we report the anti-predation strategies of red-nosed cuxiú, Chiropotes albinasus, based on direct observations from four study sites in southeastern Brazilian Amazonia. Over a collective period of 1255 fieldwork hours, we observed nine direct interactions between raptors (all potential predators) and red-nosed cuxiús. Of these, one (11%) resulted in predation. Raptors involved were: Harpia harpyja (four events), Leucopternis sp. (two events), Spizaëtus tyrannus (one event), and unidentified large raptors (two events). Predation attempts occurred in flooded-forest and terra firme rainforest, were directed at both adult and non-adult cuxiús, and involved both adult and juvenile raptors. Anti-predation strategies adopted by the cuxiús included: (1) group defence and mobbing behaviour (two occasions), (2) dropping into dense sub-canopy (seven occasions), (3) alarm calling (eight occasions), and (4) fleeing to, and hiding in, dense vegetation (eight occasions). During each encounter at least two of these behaviours were recorded. These are the first published records of predation, predation attempts, and anti-predator behaviour involving red-nosed cuxiú.
authors.affiliation: Nucleo de Biodiversidade, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia (INPA), Manaus, AM, 69067-375, Brazil. adrian.barnett1@gmail.com.|Long-term Ecological Research Program, INPA, Manaus, AM, Brazil. adrian.barnett1@gmail.com.|Amazon Mammals Research Group, INPA, Manaus, AM, Brazil. adrian.barnett1@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Adrian A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Barnett
authors.affiliation: , Rua Humberto Borssato, 68, Jardim Ângelo Maggi, Ibiporã, PR, Brazil.
authors.forename: João M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Silla
authors.affiliation: Departamento da Biologia, Universidade Estadual do Maranhão, São Luis, MA, 65055-970, Brazil.
authors.forename: Tadeu
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: de Oliveira
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, Rhodes College, Memphis, TN, 38112, USA.
authors.forename: Sarah A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Boyle
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, 50670-420, Brazil.
authors.forename: Bruna M
authors.initials: BM
authors.lastname: Bezerra
authors.affiliation: Nucleo de Biodiversidade, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonia (INPA), Manaus, AM, 69067-375, Brazil.|Amazon Mammals Research Group, INPA, Manaus, AM, Brazil.
authors.forename: Wilson R
authors.initials: WR
authors.lastname: Spironello
authors.affiliation: Instituto da Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP, 13083-862, Brazil.
authors.forename: Eleonore Z F
authors.initials: EZ
authors.lastname: Setz
authors.affiliation: Post-graduate Studies, Departamento de Zoologia, Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Belém, PA, 66060-281, Brazil.
authors.forename: Rafaela F Soares
authors.initials: RF
authors.lastname: da Silva
authors.affiliation: Post-graduate Studies, Centre for Research in Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Roehampton, London, SW15 4JD, England.
authors.forename: Samara
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: de Albuquerque Teixeira
authors.affiliation: Post-graduate Studies, Centre for Research in Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Roehampton, London, SW15 4JD, England.
authors.forename: Lucy M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Todd
authors.affiliation: Post-graduate Studies, Instituto da Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP, 13083-862, Brazil.
authors.forename: Liliam P
authors.initials: LP
authors.lastname: Pinto
mesh_terms: D000374:Aggression; D000818:Animals; D001938:Brazil; D056727:Endangered Species; D004924:Escape Reaction; D046093:Falconiformes / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D020387:Food Chain; D008297:Male; D053820:Pitheciidae / Q000502:physiology*; D011235:Predatory Behavior; D012420:Running
keywords: Harpia; Leucopternis; Predation; Predation avoidance; Primate; Raptor diets; Spizaëtus