Distinguishing real from fake ivory products by elemental analyses: A Bayesian hybrid classification method.
As laws tighten to limit commercial ivory trading and protect threatened species like whales and elephants, increased sales of fake ivory products have become widespread. This study describes a method, handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF) as a noninvasive technique for elemental analysis, to differentiate quickly between ivory (Asian and African elephant, mammoth) from non-ivory (bones, teeth, antler, horn, wood, synthetic resin, rock) materials. An equation consisting of 20 elements and light elements from a stepwise discriminant analysis was used to classify samples, followed by Bayesian binary regression to determine the probability of a sample being 'ivory', with complementary log log analysis to identify the best fit model for this purpose. This Bayesian hybrid classification model was 93% accurate with 92% precision in discriminating ivory from non-ivory materials. The method was then validated by scanning an additional ivory and non-ivory samples, correctly identifying bone as not ivory with >95% accuracy, except elephant bone, which was 72%. It was less accurate for wood and rock (25-85%); however, a preliminary screening to determine if samples are not Ca-dominant could eliminate inorganic materials. In conclusion, elemental analyses by XRF can be used to identify several forms of fake ivory samples, which could have forensic application.
Animal Bone and Joint Research Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand. Electronic address: k_buddhachat@yahoo.com.
Kittisak
K
Buddhachat
Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Center for Species Survival, 1500 Remount Road, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA. Electronic address: BrownJan@si.edu.
Janine L
JL
Brown
Center of Excellence in Elephant Research and Education, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand. Electronic address: cthitaram@gmail.com.
Chatchote
C
Thitaram
Center of Excellence in Elephant Research and Education, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand. Electronic address: yui.sarisarisa@gmail.com.
Sarisa
S
Klinhom
Animal Bone and Joint Research Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Biosciences and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand; Center of Excellence in Elephant Research and Education, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50100, Thailand. Electronic address: korakot.n@cmu.ac.th.
Korakot
K
Nganvongpanit
Bayesian; Bone; Classification; Elephant; Ivory