Direct Imaging of Dopant Distribution in Polycrystalline ZnO Films.
Two fundamental requirements of transparent conductive oxides are high conductivity and low optical absorptance, properties strongly dependent on the free-carrier concentration of the film. The free-carrier concentration is usually tuned by the addition of dopant atoms; which are commonly assumed to be uniformly distributed in the films or partially segregated at grain boundaries. Here, the combination of secondary ion mass spectroscopy at the nanometric scale (NanoSIMS) and Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) allows direct imaging of boron-dopant distribution in polycrystalline zinc oxide (ZnO) films. This work demonstrates that the boron atoms have a bimodal spatial distribution within each grain of the ZnO films. NanoSIMS analysis shows that boron atoms are preferentially incorporated into one of the two sides of each ZnO grain. KPFM measurements confirm that boron atoms are electrically active, locally increasing the free-carrier concentration in the film. The proposed cause of this nonuniform dopant distribution is the different sticking coefficient of Zn adatoms on the two distinct surface terminations of the ZnO grains. The higher sticking coefficient of Zn on the c+ surface restricts the boron incorporation on this side of the grains, resulting in preferential boron incorporation on the c- side and causing the bimodal distribution.
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Institute of Microengineering, Photovoltaics and Thin-Film Electronics Laboratory, Rue de la Maladière 71B, CH-2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
Fanni
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2642-2434
F
Lorenzo
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Interdisciplinary Centre for Electron Microscopy (CIME), Station 12, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
A Brian
AB
Aebersold
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Institute of Microengineering, Photovoltaics and Thin-Film Electronics Laboratory, Rue de la Maladière 71B, CH-2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
Monica
M
Morales-Masis
Laboratory of Nanostructures and Nanomaterials, Institute of Physics ASCR , Cukrovarnická 10, 162 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
Martin
M
Ledinský
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Laboratory for Biological Geochemistry, Station 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
Stéphane
S
Escrig
Laboratory of Nanostructures and Nanomaterials, Institute of Physics ASCR , Cukrovarnická 10, 162 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
Aliaksei
A
Vetushka
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Interdisciplinary Centre for Electron Microscopy (CIME), Station 12, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
Duncan T L
DT
Alexander
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Institute of Microengineering, Photovoltaics and Thin-Film Electronics Laboratory, Rue de la Maladière 71B, CH-2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
Aïcha
A
Hessler-Wyser
Laboratory of Nanostructures and Nanomaterials, Institute of Physics ASCR , Cukrovarnická 10, 162 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
Antonín
A
Fejfar
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Interdisciplinary Centre for Electron Microscopy (CIME), Station 12, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
Cécile
C
Hébert
Centre Suisse d'Electronique et Microtechnique , PV-Center, rue Jacques-Droz 1, CH-2002 Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
Sylvain
S
Nicolay
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) , Institute of Microengineering, Photovoltaics and Thin-Film Electronics Laboratory, Rue de la Maladière 71B, CH-2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland.|Centre Suisse d'Electronique et Microtechnique , PV-Center, rue Jacques-Droz 1, CH-2002 Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
Christophe
C
Ballif
NanoSIMS; dopant distribution; film polarity; grain boundaries; polycrystalline film; zinc oxide