Prevalence and risk factors of taste and smell impairment in a nationwide representative sample of the US population: a cross-sectional study.
To estimate the prevalence of, and explore potential risk factors for, taste and smell dysfunction in the general population of the USA.



A cross-sectional study.



A cross-sectional analysis of data collected in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES 2013-2014).



A total of 3519 men and women aged 40 years and older who participated in NHANES 2013-2014.



Using the NHANES Pocket Smell Test, smell impairment was defined as failing to correctly identify 6 or more of the 8 odours. Taste impairment was defined as failing to correctly identify quinine or sodium chloride.



The estimated prevalence was 13.5% for smell impairment, 17.3% for taste impairment and 2.2% for taste and smell impairment. For smell, but not taste, prevalence estimates increased with age and were higher in men and ethnic minorities. In backward stepwise logistic regression, low educational attainment, low family income and a history of asthma or cancer were independently associated with a higher prevalence of smell impairment, whereas light-to-moderate alcohol consumption (1-3 drinks/day) was associated with a lower prevalence of this condition. After multivariate adjustment, being non-Hispanic Black Americans, consuming ≥4 drinks of alcohol per day and having a history of cardiovascular disease (CVD) were independently associated with a higher prevalence of taste impairment.



Based on a nationally representative multistage probability survey among the US population aged 40 years and older, smell and taste dysfunction affected ∼20.5 million (13.5%) and 26.3 million (17.3%) individuals, respectively. Age, gender, ethnicity, educational attainment, family income, light-to-moderate alcohol consumption and history of asthma or cancer were significant risk factors for smell dysfunction, whereas only ethnicity, heavy alcohol consumption and CVD history were associated with a higher prevalence of taste dysfunction.
Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
Gang
G
Liu
Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
Geng
G
Zong
Smell and Taste Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
Richard L
RL
Doty
Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.|Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
Qi
Q
Sun
D000328:Adult; D017677:Age Distribution; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000453:epidemiology*; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology*; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005006:Ethnicity; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D015999:Multivariate Analysis; D009749:Nutrition Surveys; D000857:Olfaction Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology*; D012372:ROC Curve; D012307:Risk Factors; D017678:Sex Distribution; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D013651:Taste Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology*; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology
Prevalence; Risk factors; Smell Impairment; Taste Impairment