title: A direct observation method for auditing large urban centers using stratified sampling, mobile GIS technology and virtual environments.
abstract: With the expansion and growth of research on neighbourhood characteristics, there is an increased need for direct observational field audits. Herein, we introduce a novel direct observational audit method and systematic social observation instrument (SSOI) for efficiently assessing neighbourhood aesthetics over large urban areas.
  
  
  
  Our audit method uses spatial random sampling stratified by residential zoning and incorporates both mobile geographic information systems technology and virtual environments. The reliability of our method was tested in two ways: first, in 15 Ottawa neighbourhoods, we compared results at audited locations over two subsequent years, and second; we audited every residential block (167 blocks) in one neighbourhood and compared the distribution of SSOI aesthetics index scores with results from the randomly audited locations. Finally, we present interrater reliability and consistency results on all observed items.
  
  
  
  The observed neighbourhood average aesthetics index score estimated from four or five stratified random audit locations is sufficient to characterize the average neighbourhood aesthetics. The SSOI was internally consistent and demonstrated good to excellent interrater reliability. At the neighbourhood level, aesthetics is positively related to SES and physical activity and negatively correlated with BMI.
  
  
  
  The proposed approach to direct neighbourhood auditing performs sufficiently and has the advantage of financial and temporal efficiency when auditing a large city.
authors.affiliation: School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K2L 1K9, Canada.
authors.forename: Sean J V
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Lafontaine
authors.affiliation: Laboratory for Applied Geomatics and GIS Science (LAGGISS), Department of Geography, Environment and Geomatics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5, Canada. msawada@uottawa.ca.|Ottawa Neighbourhood Study (ONS), University of Ottawa, Vanier 5023, 136 Jean Jacques Lussier, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5, Canada. msawada@uottawa.ca.
authors.forename: M
authors.identifier: 0000-0001-5180-5325
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sawada
authors.affiliation: Ottawa Neighbourhood Study (ONS), University of Ottawa, Vanier 5023, 136 Jean Jacques Lussier, Ottawa, ON, K1N 6N5, Canada.|School of Psychology and Institute of Population Health, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K2L 1K9, Canada.
authors.forename: Elizabeth
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Kristjansson
mesh_terms: D002947:Cities / Q000453:epidemiology*; D004779:Environment Design / Q000592:standards*; D040362:Geographic Information Systems / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D006801:Humans; D009864:Ontario / Q000453:epidemiology; D012111:Residence Characteristics; D014505:Urban Population; D014584:User-Computer Interface
keywords: Auditing; Direct observation; Large urban centers; Methodological approach; Stratified sampling; Technology; Virtual environments