title: Caching reduces kleptoparasitism in a solitary, large felid.
abstract: Food caching is a common strategy used by a diversity of animals, including carnivores, to store and/or secure food. Despite its prevalence, the drivers of caching behaviour, and its impacts on individuals, remain poorly understood, particularly for short-term food cachers. Leopards Panthera pardus exhibit a unique form of short-term food caching, regularly hoisting, storing and consuming prey in trees. We explored the factors motivating such behaviour among leopards in the Sabi Sand Game Reserve, South Africa, associated with four not mutually exclusive hypotheses: food-perishability, consumption-time, resource-pulse and kleptoparasitism-avoidance. Using data from 2032 prey items killed by 104 leopards from 2013 to 2015, we built generalized linear mixed models to examine how hoisting behaviour, feeding time and the likelihood of a kill being kleptoparasitized varied with leopard sex and age, prey size and vulnerability, vegetation, elevation, climate, and the immediate and long-term risk posed by dominant competitors. Leopards hoisted 51% of kills. They were more likely to hoist kills of an intermediate size, outside of a resource pulse and in response to the presence of some competitors. Hoisted kills were also fed on for longer than non-hoisted kills. At least 21% of kills were kleptoparasitized, mainly by spotted hyaenas Crocuta crocuta. Kills were more likely to be kleptoparasitized at lower temperatures and if prey were larger, not hoisted, and in areas where the risk of encountering hyaenas was greatest. Female leopards that suffered higher rates of kleptoparasitism exhibited lower annual reproductive success than females that lost fewer kills. Our results strongly support the kleptoparasitism-avoidance hypothesis and suggest hoisting is a key adaptation that enables leopards to coexist sympatrically with high densities of competitors. We further argue that leopards may select smaller-sized prey than predicted by optimal foraging theory, to balance trade-offs between kleptoparasitic losses and the energetic gains derived from killing larger prey. Although caching may provide the added benefits of delaying food perishability and enabling consumption over an extended period, the behaviour primarily appears to be a strategy for leopards, and possibly other short-term cachers, to reduce the risks of kleptoparasitism.
authors.affiliation: Panthera, 8 West 40th Street, New York, NY, 10018, USA.|Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Private Bag X3, Rondebosch, Cape Town, 7701, South Africa.
authors.forename: Guy A
authors.identifier: 0000-0002-3844-1720
authors.initials: GA
authors.lastname: Balme
authors.affiliation: Panthera, 8 West 40th Street, New York, NY, 10018, USA.|Institute for Communities and Wildlife in Africa, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Private Bag X3, Rondebosch, Cape Town, 7701, South Africa.|Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, 111 Fernow Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA.
authors.forename: Jennifer R B
authors.identifier: 0000-0001-6806-392X
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Miller
authors.affiliation: Panthera, 8 West 40th Street, New York, NY, 10018, USA.
authors.forename: Ross T
authors.initials: RT
authors.lastname: Pitman
authors.affiliation: Panthera, 8 West 40th Street, New York, NY, 10018, USA.|School of Life Sciences, Westville Campus, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 4000, South Africa.
authors.forename: Luke T B
authors.initials: LT
authors.lastname: Hunter
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005260:Female; D020387:Food Chain; D045968:Hyaenidae / Q000502:physiology*; D008297:Male; D046009:Panthera / Q000502:physiology*; D011235:Predatory Behavior; D013019:South Africa
keywords: Panthera pardus; competition; consumption time; food perishability; kleptoparasitism avoidance; optimal foraging; resource pulse; short-term caching; spotted hyaena