title: Diversity and distribution of avian malaria and related haemosporidian parasites in captive birds from a Brazilian megalopolis.
abstract: The role of zoos in conservation programmes has increased significantly in last decades, and the health of captive animals is essential to guarantee success of such programmes. However, zoo birds suffer from parasitic infections, which often are caused by malaria parasites and related haemosporidians. Studies determining the occurrence and diversity of these parasites, aiming better understanding infection influence on fitness of captive birds, are limited.
  
  
  
  In 2011-2015, the prevalence and diversity of Plasmodium spp. and Haemoproteus spp. was examined in blood samples of 677 captive birds from the São Paulo Zoo, the largest zoo in Latin America. Molecular and microscopic diagnostic methods were used in parallel to detect and identify these infections.
  
  
  
  The overall prevalence of haemosporidians was 12.6%. Parasites were mostly detected by the molecular diagnosis, indicating that many birds harbour subclinical or abortive infections. In this project, birds of 17 orders (almost half of all the orders currently accepted in taxonomy of birds), 29 families, and 122 species, were tested, detecting positive individuals in 27% of bird species. Birds from the Anatidae were the most prevalently infected (64.7% of all infected animals). In all, infections with parasites of the genus Plasmodium (overall prevalence 97.6%) predominated when compared to those of the genus Haemoproteus (2.4%). In total, 14 cytochrome b (cytb) lineages of Plasmodium spp. and 2 cytb lineages of Haemoproteus spp. were recorded. Eight lineages were new. One of the reported lineages was broad generalist while others were reported in single or a few species of birds. Molecular characterization of Haemoproteus ortalidum was developed.
  
  
  
  This study shows that many species of birds are at risk in captivity. It is difficult to stop haemosporidian parasite transmission in zoos, but is possible to reduce the infection rate by treating the infected animals or/and while keeping them in facilities free from mosquitoes. Protocols of quarantine should be implemented whenever an animal is transferred between bird maintaining institutions. This is the first survey of haemosporidians in captive birds from different orders maintained in zoos. It is worth emphasizing the necessity of applying practices to control these parasites in management and husbandry of animals in captivity.
authors.affiliation: São Paulo Zoo Foundation, Av. Miguel Estéfano 4241, São Paulo, SP, 04301-905, Brazil. crfchagas@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Carolina Romeiro Fernandes
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Chagas
authors.affiliation: Nature Research Centre, Akademijos 2, Vilnius, 08412, Lithuania.
authors.forename: Gediminas
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Valkiūnas
authors.affiliation: Malaria Research Center, Superintendence for Endemic Disease Control, São Paulo, Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, Av. Dr. Enéas de Carvalho, Aguiar 470, São Paulo, SP, 05403-000, Brazil.
authors.forename: Lilian
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: de Oliveira Guimarães
authors.affiliation: Malaria Research Center, Superintendence for Endemic Disease Control, São Paulo, Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, Av. Dr. Enéas de Carvalho, Aguiar 470, São Paulo, SP, 05403-000, Brazil.
authors.forename: Eliana Ferreira
authors.initials: EF
authors.lastname: Monteiro
authors.affiliation: São Paulo Zoo Foundation, Av. Miguel Estéfano 4241, São Paulo, SP, 04301-905, Brazil.
authors.forename: Fernanda Junqueira Vaz
authors.initials: FJ
authors.lastname: Guida
authors.affiliation: Malaria Research Center, Superintendence for Endemic Disease Control, São Paulo, Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, Av. Dr. Enéas de Carvalho, Aguiar 470, São Paulo, SP, 05403-000, Brazil.
authors.forename: Roseli França
authors.initials: RF
authors.lastname: Simões
authors.affiliation: Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo, SP, 05508-900, Brazil.
authors.forename: Priscila Thihara
authors.initials: PT
authors.lastname: Rodrigues
authors.affiliation: Virology Laboratory, Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, Av. Dr. Enéas de Carvalho Aguiar 470, São Paulo, SP, 05403-000, Brazil.
authors.forename: Expedito José
authors.initials: EJ
authors.lastname: de Albuquerque Luna
authors.affiliation: Malaria Research Center, Superintendence for Endemic Disease Control, São Paulo, Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of São Paulo, Av. Dr. Enéas de Carvalho, Aguiar 470, São Paulo, SP, 05403-000, Brazil. karink@usp.br.
authors.forename: Karin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kirchgatter
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000836:Animals, Zoo; D001715:Bird Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000469:parasitology; D001717:Birds; D001938:Brazil / Q000453:epidemiology; D002947:Cities / Q000453:epidemiology; D045303:Cytochromes b / Q000235:genetics; D016787:Haemosporida / Q000145:classification / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D008289:Malaria, Avian / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000469:parasitology; D010802:Phylogeny; D010961:Plasmodium / Q000145:classification / Q000302:isolation & purification; D015995:Prevalence; D015800:Protozoan Proteins / Q000235:genetics; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA
chemical_list: D015800:Protozoan Proteins; D045303:Cytochromes b
keywords: Avian malaria; Captive birds; Conservation; Haemoproteus; Plasmodium; Zoo