title: Eating the Dead to Keep Atherosclerosis at Bay.
abstract: Atherosclerosis is the primary cause of coronary heart disease (CHD), ischemic stroke, and peripheral arterial disease. Despite effective lipid-lowering therapies and prevention programs, atherosclerosis is still the leading cause of mortality in the United States. Moreover, the prevalence of CHD in developing countries worldwide is rapidly increasing at a rate expected to overtake those of cancer and diabetes. Prominent risk factors include the hardening of arteries and high levels of cholesterol, which lead to the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis. However, cell death and efferocytosis are critical components of both atherosclerotic plaque progression and regression, yet, few currently available therapies focus on these processes. Thus, understanding the causes of cell death within the atherosclerotic plaque, the consequences of cell death, and the mechanisms of apoptotic cell clearance may enable the development of new therapies to treat cardiovascular disease. Here, we review how endoplasmic reticulum stress and cholesterol metabolism lead to cell death and inflammation, how dying cells affect plaque progression, and how autophagy and the clearance of dead cells ameliorates the inflammatory environment of the plaque. In addition, we review current research aimed at alleviating these processes and specifically targeting therapeutics to the site of the plaque.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA; Karp Family Research Laboratories, Vascular Biology Program, Harvard Medical School, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Megan L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Brophy
authors.affiliation: Karp Family Research Laboratories, Vascular Biology Program, Harvard Medical School, Boston Children's Hospital , Boston, MA , USA.
authors.forename: Yunzhou
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Dong
authors.affiliation: Karp Family Research Laboratories, Vascular Biology Program, Harvard Medical School, Boston Children's Hospital , Boston, MA , USA.
authors.forename: Hao
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Wu
authors.affiliation: Karp Family Research Laboratories, Vascular Biology Program, Harvard Medical School, Boston Children's Hospital , Boston, MA , USA.
authors.forename: H N Ashiqur
authors.initials: HN
authors.lastname: Rahman
authors.affiliation: Karp Family Research Laboratories, Vascular Biology Program, Harvard Medical School, Boston Children's Hospital , Boston, MA , USA.
authors.forename: Kai
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Song
authors.affiliation: Karp Family Research Laboratories, Vascular Biology Program, Harvard Medical School, Boston Children's Hospital , Boston, MA , USA.
authors.forename: Hong
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Chen
keywords: apoptosis; atherosclerosis; autophagy; efferocytosis; macrophages