title: Evaluating the effect of annotation size on measures of semantic similarity.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Ontologies are widely used as metadata in biological and biomedical datasets. Measures of semantic similarity utilize ontologies to determine how similar two entities annotated with classes from ontologies are, and semantic similarity is increasingly applied in applications ranging from diagnosis of disease to investigation in gene networks and functions of gene products.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Here, we analyze a large number of semantic similarity measures and the sensitivity of similarity values to the number of annotations of entities, difference in annotation size and to the depth or specificity of annotation classes. We find that most similarity measures are sensitive to the number of annotations of entities, difference in annotation size as well as to the depth of annotation classes; well-studied and richly annotated entities will usually show higher similarity than entities with only few annotations even in the absence of any biological relation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our findings may have significant impact on the interpretation of results that rely on measures of semantic similarity, and we demonstrate how the sensitivity to annotation size can lead to a bias when using semantic similarity to predict protein-protein interactions.
authors.affiliation: Computational Bioscience Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia.|Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia.
authors.forename: Maxat
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kulmanov
authors.affiliation: Computational Bioscience Research Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia. robert.hoehndorf@kaust.edu.sa.|Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia. robert.hoehndorf@kaust.edu.sa.
authors.forename: Robert
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8149-5890
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Hoehndorf
mesh_terms: D004194:Disease / Q000235:genetics; D063990:Gene Ontology; D058977:Molecular Sequence Annotation; D025941:Protein Interaction Mapping; D012660:Semantics
keywords: Gene ontology; Ontology; Semantic similarity