title: Maternal dietary intake during pregnancy and its association to birth size in rural Malawi: A cross-sectional study.
abstract: In low-resource settings, such as rural Malawi, pregnant women are prone to energy and micronutrient deficiencies with the consequence of delivering low-birth weight infants with higher risks of morbidity and mortality. This study aimed to examine the association between maternal dietary intakes during pregnancy and infant birth size. Dietary intakes of 203 pregnant women were assessed between 28 and 35 weeks of gestation and their infants' (n = 132) birth size measured. Intakes of energy, macronutrients, and 11 micronutrients were estimated using a 3-day interactive 24-hr diet recall. Semiquantitative data on food intakes for four additional days were also collected to assess food patterns. Using multilevel linear regression modeling, maternal intakes of carbohydrate were negatively associated with neonate length (β: -0.1; 95% CI: -0.2, 0.0 cm/E%) and abdominal circumference (β: -0.1, 95% CI: -0.2, 0.0 cm/E%), whereas intakes of fat were positively associated with neonate length (β: 0.1; 95% CI: 0.0, 0.2 cm/E%) and abdominal circumference (β: 0.1; 95% CI: 0.0, 0.2 cm/E%). Vitamin C intakes were positively associated with birth weight (β: 1.4; 95% CI: 0.5, 2.3 g/mg). The frequency of milk intake was positively associated with birth weight (β: 75.3; 95% CI: 13.6, 137.0 g/day). These findings offer practical suggestions for food-based interventions in the study area to promote inclusion of fat, vitamin C-rich foods, and milk in pregnancy.
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Katrine G
authors.initials: KG
authors.lastname: Hjertholm
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Per Ole
authors.identifier: 0000-0003-2977-9153
authors.initials: PO
authors.lastname: Iversen
authors.affiliation: Department of Community Health, Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Gerd
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Holmboe-Ottesen
authors.affiliation: Department of Community Health, Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Ibrahimu
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Mdala
authors.affiliation: School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Malawi, Zomba, Malawi.
authors.forename: Alister
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Munthali
authors.affiliation: School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Malawi, Zomba, Malawi.
authors.forename: Kenneth
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Maleta
authors.affiliation: Discipline of Medicine, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia.
authors.forename: Zumin
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Shi
authors.affiliation: Department of Population Health, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
authors.forename: Elaine
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Ferguson
authors.affiliation: Department of Community Health, Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Penjani
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Kamudoni
mesh_terms: D000005:Abdomen / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D000818:Animals; D000886:Anthropometry; D001205:Ascorbic Acid / Q000008:administration & dosage; D001724:Birth Weight; D001827:Body Height; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004032:Diet; D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates / Q000008:administration & dosage; D004041:Dietary Fats / Q000008:administration & dosage; D004044:Dietary Proteins / Q000008:administration & dosage; D002149:Energy Intake; D005260:Female; D005865:Gestational Age; D006801:Humans; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D008295:Malawi; D008297:Male; D000068097:Maternal Health; D018977:Micronutrients / Q000008:administration & dosage; D008892:Milk; D009752:Nutritional Status; D011247:Pregnancy; D011295:Prenatal Care; D012424:Rural Population
chemical_list: D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates; D004041:Dietary Fats; D004044:Dietary Proteins; D018977:Micronutrients; D001205:Ascorbic Acid
keywords: Malawi; food group intake; milk intake; neonatal anthropometry; nutrient intake; pregnancy