title: What is the evidence? The issue of verifying correct needle position during epidural anaesthesia in dogs.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review the methods for verifying the needle position while performing epidural anaesthesia in dogs, and to discuss the advantages, disadvantages, usefulness and reliability of each technique in the experimental and clinical research setting.
  
  
  METHODS
  PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar and the Basel University Library online catalogues; the latter, which was provided by the University of Berne, were used as databases. The results were filtered manually based on the titles and abstracts in order to narrow the field.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Besides some drawbacks, including the potential side effects of contrast medium injection, which may limit its routine use in clinical patients, epidurography should still be regarded as one of the most reliable techniques to verify needle position in dogs. Ultrasonography, electrical nerve stimulation, loss of resistance and the hanging drop technique are regarded as less invasive than epidurography and, for this reason, their use may be more applicable to clinical patients. However, these methods have been described in only a few published reports, all of which involved a limited number of dogs. Finally, the detection of epidural pressure waves has been investigated more extensively in dogs, and the findings of these studies suggest that this technique may be used to verify epidural needle placement for experimental and clinical research, on condition that all the negative subjects are excluded from the study.
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Sciences and Services, Royal Veterinary College, University of London, Hatfield, UK. Electronic address: cadami@rvc.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Chiara
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Adami
authors.affiliation: Department of Veterinary Clinical Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
authors.forename: Karine
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Gendron
mesh_terms: D000767:Anesthesia, Epidural / Q000379:methods / Q000662:veterinary*; D000818:Animals; D004285:Dogs; D004824:Epidural Space; D007268:Injections, Epidural / Q000379:methods / Q000662:veterinary; D009339:Needles; D015203:Reproducibility of Results
keywords: correct needle position; dog; epidural anaesthesia