title: Crystal arthritides - gout and calcium pyrophosphate arthritis : Part 2: clinical features, diagnosis and differential diagnostics.
abstract: Gout develops in four stages beginning with an asymptomatic increase in blood levels of uric acid. An acute gout attack is an expression of an underlying inflammatory process, which in the course of time is self-limiting. Without therapy monosodium urate crystals remain in the synovial fluid and synovial membrane and trigger more acute attacks. In the course of the disease monosodium urate crystals form deposits (tophi) leading in severe forms to irreversible joint deformities with loss of functionality. In 20% of cases gout leads to involvement of the kidneys. Overproduction of uric acid can cause nephrolithiasis. These stones can be composed of uric acid or calcium phosphate. Another form of kidney disease caused by gout is uric acid nephropathy. This is a form of abacterial chronic inflammatory response with deposition of sodium urate crystals in the medullary interstitium. Acute obstructive nephropathy is relatively rare and characterized by renal failure due to uric acid precipitation in the tubules because of rapid cell lysis that occurs, for example, with chemotherapy. There is a causal interdependence between the occurrence of hyperuricemia and hypertension. Uric acid activates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone (RAA) system and inhibits nitric oxide (NO) with the possible consequence of a rise in systemic vascular resistance or arteriolar vasculopathy; however, uric acid is also an apparently independent risk factor for atherosclerosis. In contrast to young patients, the diagnosis of an acute gout attack in the elderly can be a challenge for the physician. Polyarticular manifestations and obscure symptoms can make it difficult to differentiate it from rheumatoid arthritis and calcium pyrophosphate deposition disease (CPPD). Aspiration of synovial fluid with visualization of urate crystals using compensated polarized light microscopy is the gold standard for diagnosis of acute gout. Moreover, analysis of synovial fluid enables a distinction from septic arthritis by Gram staining and bacterial culture. Soft tissue ultrasonography is useful to detect affected synovial tissue and monosodium urate crystals within the synovial fluid. Involvement of bone occurs relatively late in the disease so that x‑ray images are not useful in the early stages but might be helpful in differential diagnostics. Dual energy computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) can be used for certain indications.
authors.affiliation: Klinik für Allgemeine Innere Medizin und Geriatrie, Krankenhaus der Barmherzigen Brüder Regensburg, Prüfeninger Str. 86, 93049, Regensburg, Germany. steffen.schlee@barmherzige-regensburg.de.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Schlee
authors.affiliation: Lehrstuhl für Altersmedizin, RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelsstraße 30, 52074, Aachen, Germany.
authors.forename: L C
authors.initials: LC
authors.lastname: Bollheimer
authors.affiliation: Institut für Klinische Chemie, Laboratoriumsmedizin und Transfusionsmedizin, Klinikum Nürnberg, Paracelsus Medizinische Privatuniversität, Prof.-Ernst-Nathan-Str. 1, 90419, Nürnberg, Germany.
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Bertsch
authors.affiliation: Klinik für Allgemeine Innere Medizin und Geriatrie, Krankenhaus der Barmherzigen Brüder Regensburg, Prüfeninger Str. 86, 93049, Regensburg, Germany.|Institut für Biomedizin des Alterns, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Koberger Straße 60, 90408, Nürnberg, Germany.
authors.forename: C C
authors.initials: CC
authors.lastname: Sieber
authors.affiliation: Klinik für Rheumatologie, Klinische Immunologie und Physikalische Therapie; Zentrum für Rheumatologische Akutdiagnostik, Katholisches Klinikum Mainz, An der Goldgrube 11, 55131, Mainz, Germany.
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Härle
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D001168:Arthritis / Q000503:physiopathology*; D002118:Calcium; D002131:Calcium Pyrophosphate / Q000097:blood*; D002805:Chondrocalcinosis / Q000097:blood / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000276:immunology; D003937:Diagnosis, Differential; D006073:Gout / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000276:immunology; D006801:Humans; D033461:Hyperuricemia / Q000150:complications; D014527:Uric Acid / Q000097:blood*
chemical_list: D014527:Uric Acid; D002118:Calcium; D002131:Calcium Pyrophosphate
keywords: Acute gout; Chronic gout; Diagnosis; Differential diagnostics; Gout