title: An International Evaluation of Cognitive Reserve and Memory Changes in Early Old Age in 10 European Countries.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cognitive reserve was postulated to explain individual differences in susceptibility to ageing, offering apparent protection to those with higher education. We investigated the association between education and change in memory in early old age.
  
  
  METHODS
  Immediate and delayed memory scores from over 10,000 individuals aged 65 years and older, from 10 countries of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe, were modeled as a function of time in the study over an 8-year period, fitting independent latent growth models. Education was used as a marker of cognitive reserve and evaluated in association with memory performance and rate of change, while accounting for income, general health, smoking, body mass index, gender, and baseline age.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In most countries, more educated individuals performed better on both memory tests at baseline, compared to those less educated. However, education was not protective against faster decline, except for in Spain for both immediate and delayed recall (0.007 [SE = 0.003] and 0.006 [SE = 0.002]), and Switzerland for immediate recall (0.006 [SE = 0.003]). Interestingly, highly educated Italian respondents had slightly faster declines in immediate recall (-0.006 [SE = 0.003]).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We found weak evidence of a protective effect of education on memory change in most European samples, although there was a positive association with memory performance at individuals' baseline assessment.
authors.affiliation: Research Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London (UCL), London, UK.
authors.forename: Dorina
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Cadar
authors.forename: Annie
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Robitaille
authors.forename: Sean
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Clouston
authors.forename: Scott M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Hofer
authors.forename: Andrea M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Piccinin
authors.forename: Graciela
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Muniz-Terrera
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D058245:Cognitive Reserve; D004522:Educational Status; D005060:Europe; D005260:Female; D015577:Geriatric Assessment; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008568:Memory
keywords: Cognitive reserve; Education; Latent growth curve model; Memory; Older adults