title: Re-conceptualizing stress: Shifting views on the consequences of stress and its effects on stress reactivity.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The consequences of stress are typically regarded from a deficit-oriented approach, conceptualizing stress to be entirely negative in its outcomes. This approach is unbalanced, and may further hinder individuals from engaging in adaptive coping. In the current study, we explored whether negative views and beliefs regarding stress interacted with a stress framing manipulation (positive, neutral and negative) on measures of stress reactivity for both psychosocial and physiological stressors.
  
  
  METHODS
  Ninety participants were randomized into one of three framing conditions that conceptualized the experience of stress in balanced, unbalanced-negative or unbalanced-positive ways. After watching a video on stress, participants underwent a psychosocial (Trier Social Stress Test), or a physiological (CO2 challenge) method of stress-induction. Subjective and objective markers of stress were assessed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Most of the sampled population regarded stress as negative prior to framing. Further, subjective and objective reactivity were greater to the TSST compared to the CO2 challenge. Additionally, significant cubic trends were observed in the interactions of stress framing and stress-induction methodologies on heart rate and blood pressure. Balanced framing conditions in the TSST group had a significantly larger decrease in heart rate and diastolic blood pressure following stress compared to the positive and negative framing conditions.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Findings confirmed a deficit-orientation of stress within the sampled population. In addition, results highlighted the relative efficacy of the TSST compared to CO2 as a method of stress provocation. Finally, individuals in framing conditions that posited stress outcomes in unbalanced manners responded to stressors less efficiently. This suggests that unbalanced framing of stress may have set forth unrealistic expectations regarding stress that later hindered individuals from adaptive responses to stress. Potential benefits of alternative conceptualizations of stress on stress reactivity are discussed, and suggestions for future research are made.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
authors.forename: Jenny J W
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Liu
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
authors.forename: Kristin
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5977-0251
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Vickers
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
authors.forename: Maureen
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Reed
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
authors.forename: Marilyn
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hadad
mesh_terms: D000222:Adaptation, Physiological; D000223:Adaptation, Psychological; D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D001794:Blood Pressure; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D003469:Culture; D005260:Female; D006339:Heart Rate; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D010465:Perception; D013312:Stress, Physiological; D013315:Stress, Psychological; D055815:Young Adult