title: Toxins as biological weapons for terror-characteristics, challenges and medical countermeasures: a mini-review.
abstract: Toxins are hazardous biochemical compounds derived from bacteria, fungi, or plants. Some have mechanisms of action and physical properties that make them amenable for use as potential warfare agents. Currently, some toxins are classified as potential biological weapons, although they have several differences from classic living bio-terror pathogens and some similarities to manmade chemical warfare agents. This review focuses on category A and B bio-terror toxins recognized by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Botulinum neurotoxin, staphylococcal enterotoxin B, Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin, and ricin. Their derivation, pathogenesis, mechanism of action, associated clinical signs and symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment are discussed in detail. Given their expected covert use, the primary diagnostic challenge in toxin exposure is the early detection of morbidity clusters, apart from background morbidity, after a relatively short incubation period. For this reason, it is important that clinicians be familiar with the clinical manifestations of toxins and the appropriate methods of management and countermeasures.
authors.affiliation: Surgeon General Headquarters, IDF Medical Corps, Tel Hashomer, Israel ; Department of Internal Medicine, Rabin Medical Center, Petah Tikva, Israel.
authors.forename: Tamar
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Berger
authors.affiliation: Surgeon General Headquarters, IDF Medical Corps, Tel Hashomer, Israel ; Institute for Research in Military Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel ; NBC Protection Division, IMOD, Tel-Aviv, Israel.
authors.forename: Arik
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Eisenkraft
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona, Israel.
authors.forename: Erez
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Bar-Haim
authors.affiliation: Surgeon General Headquarters, IDF Medical Corps, Tel Hashomer, Israel.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kassirer
authors.affiliation: Surgeon General Headquarters, IDF Medical Corps, Tel Hashomer, Israel ; Pediatric Critical Care Unit, Children's Hospital, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY USA.
authors.forename: Adi Avniel
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Aran
authors.affiliation: Surgeon General Headquarters, IDF Medical Corps, Tel Hashomer, Israel.
authors.forename: Itay
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Fogel
keywords: Bioterror; Botulinum neurotoxin; Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin; Medical countermeasures; Ricin; Staphylococcal enterotoxin B; Toxins