title: Sex Hormones and Sex Chromosomes Cause Sex Differences in the Development of Cardiovascular Diseases.
abstract: This review summarizes recent evidence concerning hormonal and sex chromosome effects in obesity, atherosclerosis, aneurysms, ischemia/reperfusion injury, and hypertension. Cardiovascular diseases occur and progress differently in the 2 sexes, because biological factors differing between the sexes have sex-specific protective and harmful effects. By comparing the 2 sexes directly, and breaking down sex into its component parts, one can discover sex-biasing protective mechanisms that might be targeted in the clinic. Gonadal hormones, especially estrogens and androgens, have long been found to account for some sex differences in cardiovascular diseases, and molecular mechanisms mediating these effects have recently been elucidated. More recently, the inherent sexual inequalities in effects of sex chromosome genes have also been implicated as contributors in animal models of cardiovascular diseases, especially a deleterious effect of the second X chromosome found in females but not in males. Hormonal and sex chromosome mechanisms interact in the sex-specific control of certain diseases, sometimes by opposing the action of the other.
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles (A.P.A.); Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington (L.A.C.); Department of Anesthesiology (M.E.) and Department of Human Genetics (K.R.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA; and Department of Medicine, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (K.S.). arnold@ucla.edu.
authors.forename: Arthur P
authors.initials: AP
authors.lastname: Arnold
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles (A.P.A.); Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington (L.A.C.); Department of Anesthesiology (M.E.) and Department of Human Genetics (K.R.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA; and Department of Medicine, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (K.S.).
authors.forename: Lisa A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Cassis
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles (A.P.A.); Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington (L.A.C.); Department of Anesthesiology (M.E.) and Department of Human Genetics (K.R.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA; and Department of Medicine, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (K.S.).
authors.forename: Mansoureh
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Eghbali
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles (A.P.A.); Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington (L.A.C.); Department of Anesthesiology (M.E.) and Department of Human Genetics (K.R.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA; and Department of Medicine, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (K.S.).
authors.forename: Karen
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Reue
authors.affiliation: From the Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles (A.P.A.); Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington (L.A.C.); Department of Anesthesiology (M.E.) and Department of Human Genetics (K.R.), David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA; and Department of Medicine, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC (K.S.).
authors.forename: Kathryn
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Sandberg
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000209:etiology* / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism / Q000517:prevention & control; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D005260:Female; D020022:Genetic Predisposition to Disease; D012739:Gonadal Steroid Hormones / Q000378:metabolism*; D054624:Health Status Disparities; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008822:Mice, Transgenic; D010641:Phenotype; D065840:Protective Factors; D012307:Risk Factors; D012730:Sex Chromosomes; D012737:Sex Factors
chemical_list: D012739:Gonadal Steroid Hormones
keywords: androgen effects; atherosclerosis; coronary artery disease; estrogen effects; gonosomes; heart failure; obesity