title: Efficacy and Ecotoxicity of Novel Anti-Fouling Nanomaterials in Target and Non-Target Marine Species.
abstract: Biofouling is a global problem that affects virtually all the immersed structures. Currently, several novel environmentally friendly approaches are being tested worldwide to decrease the toxicity of biocides in non-fouling species, such as the encapsulation/immobilization of commercially available biocides, in order to achieve control over the leaching rate. The present study addresses the toxicity of two widely used booster biocides, zinc pyrithione (ZnPT) and copper pyrithione (CuPT), in its free and incorporated forms in order to assess their toxicity and anti-fouling efficacy in target and non-target species. To achieve this goal, the following marine organisms were tested; the green microalgae Tetraselmis chuii (non-target species) and both target species, the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum and the mussel Mytilus edulis. Organisms were exposed to both biocides, two unloaded nanostructured materials and nanomaterials loaded with biocides, from 10 μg/L to 100 mg/L total weight, following standard protocols. The most eco-friendly and simultaneously efficient anti-fouling solution against the two photosynthetic species (nanoclays loaded with ZnPT) was then tested on mussels to assess its lethal efficacy (LC50= 123 μg/L) and compared with free biocide (LC50= 211 μg/L) and unloaded material (LC50> 1000 μg/L). A second exposure test with sub-lethal concentrations (lower than 100 μg/L), using mussels, was carried out to assess biochemical changes caused by the tested compounds. Oxidative stress, detoxification and neurotransmission markers were not responsive; however, different antioxidant patterns were found with free ZnPT and loaded nanoclay exposures. Thus, the immobilization of the biocide ZnPT into nanoclays proved to be a promising efficient and eco-friendly anti-fouling strategy.
authors.affiliation: Smallmatek - Small Materials and Technologies, Lda, Rua Canhas, 3810-075, Aveiro, Portugal.
authors.forename: Francisco
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Avelelas
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology and CESAM, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal. roberto@ua.pt.
authors.forename: Roberto
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Martins
authors.affiliation: Smallmatek - Small Materials and Technologies, Lda, Rua Canhas, 3810-075, Aveiro, Portugal.
authors.forename: Tânia
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Oliveira
authors.affiliation: Smallmatek - Small Materials and Technologies, Lda, Rua Canhas, 3810-075, Aveiro, Portugal.
authors.forename: Frederico
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Maia
authors.affiliation: Smallmatek - Small Materials and Technologies, Lda, Rua Canhas, 3810-075, Aveiro, Portugal.
authors.forename: Eliana
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Malheiro
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology and CESAM, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal.
authors.forename: Amadeu M V M
authors.initials: AMVM
authors.lastname: Soares
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology and CESAM, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal.
authors.forename: Susana
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Loureiro
authors.affiliation: CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials and Department of Materials and Ceramic Engineering, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal.
authors.forename: João
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Tedim
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D059001:Aquatic Organisms; D057219:Biofouling / Q000517:prevention & control; D049872:Bivalvia / Q000187:drug effects; D000460:Chlorophyta / Q000187:drug effects; D017377:Diatoms / Q000187:drug effects; D004202:Disinfectants / Q000633:toxicity*; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects; D049329:Nanostructures / Q000633:toxicity*; D009942:Organometallic Compounds / Q000633:toxicity*; D011725:Pyridines / Q000633:toxicity*; D023382:Toxicity Tests, Acute
chemical_list: D004202:Disinfectants; D009942:Organometallic Compounds; D011725:Pyridines; C487833:copper pyrithione; C010423:pyrithione zinc
keywords: Biofouling; Marine species; Nanomaterials; Pyrithione; Toxicity assessment