title: Immunotherapy for type 1 diabetes.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Although many approaches have been tested to overcome the insulin dependence caused by the pancreatic β-cells destruction observed in individuals affected by type 1 diabetes (T1D), medical research has largely failed to halt the onset or to reverse T1D.
  
  
  METHODS
  In this work, the state of the art of immunotherapy will be examined, and the most important achievement in the field will be critically discussed. Particularly, we will focus on the clinical aspect, thus avoiding the tedious preclinical work done in NOD mice, which has been so poorly translated to the bedside.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Stem cell therapies achieved thus this far the most promising results, while immune ablation and standard immunosuppressants did not maintain the premises of preclinical results. The next step will be to generate a feasible and safe clinical approach in order to cure the thousands of patients affected by T1D.
authors.affiliation: DITID, San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Davide
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Frumento
authors.affiliation: International Center for T1D, Pediatric Clinical Research Center Fondazione Romeo e Enrica Invernizzi, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science L. Sacco, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.|Nephrology Division, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Enders Building 5th floor Room EN511, 300 Longwood Ave, Boston, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Moufida
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Ben Nasr
authors.affiliation: Medicine, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt.
authors.forename: Basset
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: El Essawy
authors.affiliation: DITID, San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy.|International Center for T1D, Pediatric Clinical Research Center Fondazione Romeo e Enrica Invernizzi, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science L. Sacco, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Francesca
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: D'Addio
authors.affiliation: Pediatric Clinical Research Center Fondazione Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science L. Sacco, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Gian Vincenzo
authors.initials: GV
authors.lastname: Zuccotti
authors.affiliation: International Center for T1D, Pediatric Clinical Research Center Fondazione Romeo e Enrica Invernizzi, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science L. Sacco, University of Milan, Milan, Italy. paolo.fiorina@childrens.harvard.edu.|Nephrology Division, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Enders Building 5th floor Room EN511, 300 Longwood Ave, Boston, MA, USA. paolo.fiorina@childrens.harvard.edu.
authors.forename: Paolo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Fiorina
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003922:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1 / Q000276:immunology* / Q000628:therapy*; D006801:Humans; D007167:Immunotherapy
keywords: Clinical; Immunotherapy; Trials; Type 1 diabetes