title: Patterns of long bone growth in a mid-19th century documented sample of the urban poor from Bethnal Green, London, UK.
abstract: Studies of male and female long bone growth in past populations are limited and usually constrained by the lack of personal identification. This article aimed to evaluate long bone growth in a series of mid-19thcentury documented burials associated with the urban poor from Bethnal Green, London, UK.
  
  
  
  Maximum diaphyseal lengths from 74 males and 70 females (2 months to 12 years) were compared to modern reference data from North America. Diaphyseal lengths were expressed as a percentage of expected length and an average percentage value was calculated across all available long bones. An index of growth progression was introduced to explore differences in the progress of males and females towards their projected adult size.
  
  
  
  Deviation from the expected growth attainment was evident in both sexes in the archaeological series by 2-4 months of age. Only 19.4% (28/144) of the children had attained an average long bone length >90% of the predicted mean in the reference series. The percentage of expected growth attainment decreased steadily in both sexes during infancy and early childhood. Overall, females deviated further from their expected growth progression than males.
  
  
  
  Growth faltering in both males and females was established during infancy (<1 year) with no evidence for recovery in older age groups. Early weaning and inadequate artificial feeding, together with impoverished living conditions and limited sanitary provision, most likely impacted on childhood growth.
authors.affiliation: Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, SW7 5BD, United Kingdom.|AOC Archaeology Group, Twickenham, TW1 1JS, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Rachel
authors.identifier: 0000-0002-2980-7495
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Ives
authors.affiliation: Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, SW7 5BD, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Louise
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Humphrey
mesh_terms: D000885:Anthropology, Physical; D001846:Bone Development / Q000502:physiology*; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D018483:Diaphyses / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D005260:Female; D005269:Femur / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000254:growth & development; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D008131:London; D008297:Male; D011203:Poverty; D014505:Urban Population
keywords: deficit; diaphyseal length; illness; index of growth progression; infant feeding; sex-related variation