title: Physical site characteristics limit pollination and fruit set in the dioecious hydrophilous species, Vallisneria americana.
abstract: Experimental and observational studies of the submersed, freshwater macrophyte Vallisneria americana Michx. revealed that depth, wind and wave exposure, and current velocity may all influence fruit set. In this dioecious species, long-pedunculate female flowers are pollinated by free-floating male flowers at the water surface. Average fruit set in the natural populations studied varied from zero to 97% of the flowers observed. With increasing water depth in New York and Pennsylvania lakes, female plants continued to flower, though these flowers were unable to reach the surface, and consequently, did not set fruit. Fruit set was also lower in relatively open sites exposed to wind and waves, presumably because male flowers do not remain in the vicinity of female flowers long enough for effective pollination. This was particularly striking at a site with low male flower densities, but fruit set was increased to 100% at that site by confining the floating male flowers within a field enclosure. In a river, fruit set was negatively correlated with surface current velocity, and was reduced to zero in current velocities greater than 0.30 m · s-1. Fruit set in V. americana appears to be restricted or precluded by physical environmental conditions in a variety of sites.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, Binghamton University, 13902-6000, Binghamton, NY, USA. sullivan@perl.sdsu.edu.|Pacific Estuarine Research Laboratory, San Diego State University, 92182-4625, San Diego, CA, USA. sullivan@perl.sdsu.edu.
authors.forename: Gary
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Sullivan
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, Binghamton University, 13902-6000, Binghamton, NY, USA.
authors.forename: John E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Titus
keywords: Dioecious; Fruit set; Hydrophilous pollination; Macrophyte; Pollen limitation