title: Non-additive effects of multiple natural enemies on aphid populations.
abstract: The question of whether multiple natural enemies often interact to produce lower host mortality than single enemies acting alone has not yet been resolved. We compared the effects of four different combinations of natural enemies-parasitoids, predators, parasitoids plus predators, and no enemies-on caged aphid populations on marsh elder, Iva frutescens, in west-central Florida. Using starting densities of natural enemies commonly found in the field, we showed that parasitoid wasps reduced aphid population densities more than predatory ladybird beetles. The addition of predators to cages containing parasites reduced the ability of parasitoids to decrease aphid population densities. Because the experiments ran only over the course of one generation, such a reduction in the effectiveness of parasites is likely caused by interference of predators with parasitoid behavior. Parasitism in the cages containing both parasitoids and predators was reduced when compared to percent parasitism in parasitoid-only cages, but this could also be due to predation. Our experiments showed that ladybird beetles prey on parasitized aphids. Thus over the long-term, the effectiveness of parasites is impaired by the interference of predators on ovipositing parasitoids and by the predation of parasitized aphids. The effects of natural enemies in this system are clearly non-additive.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, University of South Florida, 33620, Tampa, FL, USA.
authors.forename: Kenneth I
authors.initials: KI
authors.lastname: Ferguson
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, University of South Florida, 33620, Tampa, FL, USA.
authors.forename: Peter
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Stiling
keywords: Aphids; Biological control; Non-additive effects; Parasitoids; Predators