title: Chlamydia trachomatis and chlamydia-like bacteria: new enemies of human pregnancies.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This review provides an update on the roles of Chlamydia trachomatis and the related Waddlia chondrophila and Parachlamydia acanthamoebae in miscarriage, stillbirths and preterm labour in humans. A broad audience, including microbiologist, infectiologists, obstetricians and gynaecologists, should be aware of the potential threat of these Chlamydiales for human reproduction.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Despite increasing laboratory techniques and possibilities to perform diagnostic tests, the cause of miscarriage is only identified in 50% of the cases. Intracellular bacteria, such as C. trachomatis and Chlamydia-related bacteria, are difficult to detect in routine clinical samples and could represent possible agents of miscarriages. C. trachomatis is considered the world largest sexual transmitted bacterial agent and is associated with adverse pregnancy outcome in human. In the last decade Chlamydia-like organisms, such as W. chondrophila and P. acanthamoebae, have also been associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes in human and/or animals.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We review here the current evidences for a pathogenic role in humans, the diagnostic approaches and possible treatment options of C. trachomatis, W. chondrophila and P. acanthamoebae.
authors.affiliation: aMaterno-fetal and Obstetrics Research Unit, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Maternity, University Hospital bCenter for Research on Intracellular Bacteria, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne and University Hospital cInfectious Disease Service, University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Anne
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ammerdorffer
authors.forename: Miloš
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Stojanov
authors.forename: Gilbert
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Greub
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Baud
mesh_terms: D000031:Abortion, Septic / Q000382:microbiology*; D002690:Chlamydia Infections / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000382:microbiology*; D002692:Chlamydia trachomatis / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000472:pathogenicity; D002695:Chlamydiales / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000472:pathogenicity; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D011247:Pregnancy; D011256:Pregnancy Outcome