title: Geographic and taxonomic distribution of a positive interaction: ant-tended homopterans indirectly benefit figs across southern Africa.
abstract: Although species pairs and assemblages often occur across geographic regions, ecologists know very little about the outcome of their interactions on such large spatial scales. Here, we assess the geographic distribution and taxonomic diversity of a positive interaction involving ant-tended homopterans and fig trees in the genus Ficus. Previous experimental studies at a few locations in South Africa indicated that Ficus sur indirectly benefited from the presence of a homopteran (Hilda patruelis) because it attracted ants (primarily Pheidole megacephala) that reduced the effects of both pre-dispersal ovule gallers and parasitoids of pollinating wasps. Based on this work, we evaluated three conditions that must be met in order to support the hypothesis that this indirect interaction involves many fig species and occurs throughout much of southern Africa and Madagascar. Data on 429 trees distributed among five countries indicated that 20 of 38 Ficus species, and 46% of all trees sampled, had ants on their figs. Members of the Sycomorus subgenus were significantly more likely to attract ants than those in the Urostigma subgenus, and ant-colonization levels on these species were significantly greater than for Urostigma species. On average, each ant-occupied F.sur tree had 37% of its fig crop colonized by ants, whereas the value was 24% for other Ficus species. H. patruelis was the most common source for attracting ants, although figs were also attacked by a range of other ant-tended homopterans. P. megacephala was significantly more common on figs than other ant species, being present on 58% of sampled trees. Ant densities commonly exceeded 4.5 per fig, which a field experiment indicated was sufficient to provide protection from ovule gallers and parasitoids of pollinators. Forty-nine percent of all colonized F. sur trees sampled had ant densities equal to or greater than 4.5 per fig, whereas this value was 23% for other Ficus species. We conclude that there is considerable evidence to suggest that this indirect interaction occurs across four southern African countries and Madagascar, and involves many Ficus species.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, CA 94928, USA e-mail: cushman@sonoma.edu, , , , , , US.
authors.forename: J Hall
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Cushman
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK, , , , , , GB.
authors.forename: Stephen G
authors.initials: SG
authors.lastname: Compton
authors.affiliation: Plant Protection Research Institute, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, , , , , , ZA.
authors.forename: Costas
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Zachariades
authors.affiliation: Outspan Citrus Ltd., Nelspruit, Transvaal, South Africa, , , , , , ZA.
authors.forename: Anthony B
authors.initials: AB
authors.lastname: Ware
authors.affiliation: Xanadu Farm, Woodlands, Lusaka, Zambia, , , , , , ZM.
authors.forename: Rory J C
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Nefdt
authors.affiliation: Bodega Marine Laboratory, University of California, Bodega Bay, CA 94923, USA, , , , , , US.
authors.forename: Vanessa K
authors.initials: VK
authors.lastname: Rashbrook
keywords: Ficus; Geographic distribution of interactions; Indirect effects; Key words Ant-plant-homopteran interactions; Positive interactions