title: Fluctuating food supply affects the clutch size of Tengmalm's owl independent of laying date.
abstract: In western Finland, yearly median laying dates of Tengmalm's owls varied from 14 March to 27 April during 1973-1989 and were negatively correlated with the winter densities of voles. Yearly mean clutch sizes varied from 4.0 to 6.7 and were more closely related to the spring than to the winter densities of voles. The yearly mean clutch size decreased with yearly median laying date. The 3-year vole population cycle is typical of the study area. The start of egg-laying was earliest in the peak phase of the cycle (median laying date 22 March), when vole numbers are high during egg-laying, but decline rapidly to low numbers in the next autumn or winter. In the increase phase (1 April) vole abundances are moderate at the time of laying, but increase to a peak in the next autumn or winter. In the low phase (15 April) voles are scarce in spring and in the preceding winter, starting to increase in late summer. Clutch size and female body mass were independent of laying date in the low phase, decreased slowly but significantly in the increase phase, and declined abruptly in the peak phase. These trends also held when the effects of territory quality, female age and male age were ruled out. When comparing the same laying periods, clutch sizes were significantly larger in the increase than in other phases of the cycle, but there was no difference between the peak and low phases. Supplementary feeding prior to and during egg-laying increased clutch size independent of laying date. These results agreed with the "income" model (the rate of energy supply during laying determines clutch size). Tengmalm's owls invest most in a clutch in the increase phase, as the reproductive value of eggs is largest because of high survival of yearlings. A high reproductive effort may be adaptive during this phase, because the availability of voles is predictable during the laying period.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Ecological Zoology, Department of Biology, University of Turku, SF-20500, Turku 50, Finland.
authors.forename: Erkki
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Korpimäki
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, Konnevesi Research Station, University of Jyväskylä, SF-44300, Konnevesi, Finland.
authors.forename: Harri
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Hakkarainen
keywords: Clutch size; Laying date; Population fluctuations of voles; Tengmalm's owl