title: Health risk of inhalation exposure to sub-10 µm particulate matter and gaseous pollutants in an urban-industrial area in South Africa: an ecological study.
abstract: To assess the health risks associated with exposure to particulate matter (PM10), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and ozone (O3).
  
  
  
  The study is an ecological study that used the year 2014 hourly ambient pollution data.
  
  
  
  The study was conducted in an industrial area located in Pretoria West, South Africa. The area accommodates a coal-fired power station, metallurgical industries such as a coke plant and a manganese smelter.
  
  
  
  Estimate of possible health risks from exposure to airborne PM10, SO2, NO2, CO and O3was performed using the US Environmental Protection Agency human health risk assessment framework. A scenario-assessment approach where normal (average exposure) and worst-case (continuous exposure) scenarios were developed for intermediate (24-hour) and chronic (annual) exposure periods for different exposure groups (infants, children, adults). The normal acute (1-hour) exposure to these pollutants was also determined.
  
  
  
  Presence or absence of adverse health effects from exposure to airborne pollutants.
  
  
  
  Average annual ambient concentration of PM10, NO2and SO2recorded was 48.3±43.4, 11.50±11.6 and 18.68±25.4 µg/m3, respectively, whereas the South African National Ambient Air Quality recommended 40, 40 and 50 µg/m3for PM10, NO2and SO2, respectively. Exposure to an hour's concentration of NO2, SO2, CO and O3, an 8-hour concentration of CO and O3, and a 24-hour concentration of PM10, NO2and SO2will not likely produce adverse effects to sensitive exposed groups. However, infants and children, rather than adults, are more likely to be affected. Moreover, for chronic annual exposure, PM10, NO2and SO2posed a health risk to sensitive individuals, with the severity of risk varying across exposed groups.
  
  
  
  Long-term chronic exposure to airborne PM10, NO2and SO2pollutants may result in health risks among the study population.
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa.
authors.forename: Oyewale Mayowa
authors.initials: OM
authors.lastname: Morakinyo
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics, Faculty of Public Health, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria.
authors.forename: Ayo Stephen
authors.initials: AS
authors.lastname: Adebowale
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa.
authors.forename: Matlou Ingrid
authors.initials: MI
authors.lastname: Mokgobu
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa.
authors.forename: Murembiwa Stanley
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Mukhola
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000032:analysis*; D000397:Air Pollution / Q000032:analysis*; D002248:Carbon Monoxide / Q000032:analysis; D002648:Child; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000032:analysis*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007221:Industry; D007223:Infant; D019570:Inhalation Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000032:analysis*; D008297:Male; D008669:Metallurgy; D009585:Nitrogen Dioxide / Q000032:analysis; D010126:Ozone / Q000032:analysis; D052638:Particulate Matter / Q000032:analysis*; D011210:Power Plants; D012306:Risk; D013019:South Africa; D013458:Sulfur Dioxide / Q000032:analysis; D014505:Urban Population
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D052638:Particulate Matter; D013458:Sulfur Dioxide; D010126:Ozone; D002248:Carbon Monoxide; D009585:Nitrogen Dioxide
keywords: South Africa; exposure groups; gaseous pollutants; health risk assessment; particulate matter