The relationship between health worker stigma and uptake of HIV counseling and testing and utilization of non-HIV health services: the experience of male and female sex workers in Kenya.
The barrier HIV-stigma presents to the HIV treatment cascade is increasingly documented; however less is known about female and male sex worker engagement in and the influence of sex-work stigma on the HIV care continuum. While stigma occurs in all spheres of life, stigma within health services may be particularly detrimental to health seeking behaviors. Therefore, we present levels of sex-work stigma from healthcare workers (HCW) among male and female sex workers in Kenya, and explore the relationship between sex-work stigma and HIV counseling and testing. We also examine the relationship between sex-work stigma and utilization of non-HIV health services. A snowball sample of 497 female sex workers (FSW) and 232 male sex workers (MSW) across four sites was recruited through a modified respondent-driven sampling process. About 50% of both male and female sex workers reported anticipating verbal stigma from HCW while 72% of FSW and 54% of MSW reported experiencing at least one of seven measured forms of stigma from HCW. In general, stigma led to higher odds of reporting delay or avoidance of counseling and testing, as well as non-HIV specific services. Statistical significance of relationships varied across type of health service, type of stigma and gender. For example, anticipated stigma was not a significant predictor of delay or avoidance of health services for MSW; however, FSW who anticipated HCW stigma had significantly higher odds of avoiding (OR = 2.11) non-HIV services, compared to FSW who did not. This paper adds to the growing evidence of stigma as a roadblock in the HIV treatment cascade, as well as its undermining of the human right to health. While more attention is being paid to addressing HIV-stigma, it is equally important to address the key population stigma that often intersects with HIV-stigma.
a Global Health Division, International Development Group , RTI International , Washington , USA.
Laura
L
Nyblade
a Global Health Division, International Development Group , RTI International , Washington , USA.
Aditi
A
Reddy
b Palladium , Washington , USA.
David
D
Mbote
a Global Health Division, International Development Group , RTI International , Washington , USA.|c Department of Health Systems Administration , Georgetown University , Washington , USA.
John
J
Kraemer
a Global Health Division, International Development Group , RTI International , Washington , USA.
Melissa
M
Stockton
d Survivors , Busia , Kenya.
Caroline
C
Kemunto
a Global Health Division, International Development Group , RTI International , Washington , USA.
Karol
K
Krotki
a Global Health Division, International Development Group , RTI International , Washington , USA.
Javier
J
Morla
e Kenya Medical Research Institute , Nairobi , Kenya.
Stella
S
Njuguna
b Palladium , Washington , USA.
Arin
0000-0002-2753-5035
A
Dutta
b Palladium , Washington , USA.
Catherine
C
Barker
D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D001291:Attitude of Health Personnel; D003376:Counseling / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D015658:HIV Infections / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000523:psychology; D006282:Health Personnel / Q000523:psychology / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D006297:Health Services Accessibility / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D006801:Humans; D007630:Kenya; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D060386:Sex Workers / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D057545:Social Stigma; D055815:Young Adult
Stigma; discrimination; female sex workers; health care workers; healthcare utilization; male sex workers