title: Risk of cardiovascular disease in inflammatory bowel disease.
abstract: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) can arise because of chronic inflammation and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is one such disease where the risk for CVD and eventual heart failure is increased considerably. The incidence of IBD, which refers to both ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease, has been on the increase in several countries and is a potential risk factor for CVD. Although IBD can potentially cause venous thromboembolism, its significance in arterial stiffening, atherosclerosis, ischemic heart disease and myocardial infarction is only being realized now and it is currently under debate. However, several studies with large groups of patients have demonstrated the association of IBD with heart disease. It has been suggested that systemic inflammation as observed in IBD patients leads to oxidative stress and elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), which lead to phenotypic changes in smooth muscle cells and sets into motion a series of events that culminate in atherosclerosis and CVD. Besides the endogenous factors and cytokines, it has been suggested that due to the compromised intestinal mucosal barrier, endotoxins and bacterial lipopolysaccharides produced by intestinal microflora can enter into circulation and activate inflammatory responses that lead to atherosclerosis. Therapeutic management of IBD-associated heart diseases cannot be achieved with simple anti-inflammatory drugs such as corticosteroids and anti-TNF-α antibodies. Treatment with existing medications for CVDs, aspirin, platelet aggregation inhibitors and statins is found to be acceptable and safe. Nevertheless, further research is needed to assess their efficacy in IBD patients suffering from heart disease.
authors.affiliation: Department of Gastroenterology, Xuzhou Central Hospital, The Affiliated Xuzhou Hospital of Medical College of Southeast University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221009, P.R. China.
authors.forename: Ping
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Wu
authors.affiliation: Department of Gastroenterology, Xuzhou Central Hospital, The Affiliated Xuzhou Hospital of Medical College of Southeast University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221009, P.R. China.
authors.forename: Fangyuan
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Jia
authors.affiliation: Department of Gastroenterology, Xuzhou Central Hospital, The Affiliated Xuzhou Hospital of Medical College of Southeast University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221009, P.R. China.
authors.forename: Bao
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.affiliation: Department of Cardiology, Xuzhou Central Hospital, The Affiliated Xuzhou Hospital of Medical College of Southeast University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221009, P.R. China.
authors.forename: Peiying
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Zhang
keywords: atherosclerosis; cardiovascular disease; endothelial cells; endotoxins; inflammation; inflammatory bowel disease; lipopolysaccharide; tumor necrosis factor-α; venous thromboembolism