title: Diagnostic and Prognostic Potential of Retinal Biomarkers in Early On-Set Alzheimer's Disease.
abstract: Accumulating evidence suggests that the eye can be used in the assessment of early on-set Alzheimer's disease (AD). The eye offers a natural window to the brain through the retina. The retina and brain share common developmental origins and patho-physiological origins and mechanisms, having been sequestered from it during early development, but retaining its connections with the brain via the optic nerve. Therefore, it is well understood that neurological abnormalities have a direct profound impact on the retina. Recent studies suggest an array of physiological and pathological changes in the retina in dementia and specifically in AD. There are also reports on imaging the two hallmark proteins of the disease, extracellular amyloid beta peptides and intracellular hyper phosphorylated tau protein, as a proxy to neuroimaging.
  
  
  
  In this review, we summarise retinal structural, functional and vascular changes reported to be associated with AD. We also review techniques employed to image these two major hall mark proteins of AD and their relevance for early detection of AD.
authors.affiliation: Vision Science Group, Graduate School of Health (Orthoptics Discipline), University of Technology Sydney, Sydney. Australia.
authors.forename: Sahar
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Shariflou
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University. Australia.
authors.forename: Dana
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Georgevsky
authors.affiliation: Vision Science Group, Graduate School of Health (Orthoptics Discipline), University of Technology Sydney, Sydney. Australia.
authors.forename: Hussein
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Mansour
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University. Australia.
authors.forename: Mahdie
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Rezaeian
authors.affiliation: Vision Science Group, Graduate School of Health (Orthoptics Discipline), University of Technology Sydney, Sydney. Australia.
authors.forename: Nafiseh
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Hosseini
authors.affiliation: Vision Science Group, Graduate School of Health (Orthoptics Discipline), University of Technology Sydney, Sydney. Australia.
authors.forename: Fathima
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Gani
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University. Australia.
authors.forename: Vivek
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Gupta
authors.affiliation: Centre for Healthy Brain Ageing, University of New South Wales, South Wales. Australia.
authors.forename: Nady
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Braidy
authors.affiliation: NHMRC Research Fellow- Vision Sciences (Group Leader) Graduate School of Health | University of Technology, Sydney Level 13, Building 1, Broadway Campus I, P.O. Box 123, Graduate School of Health, 15 Broadway, UTS UTLIMO 2007. Australia.
authors.forename: S Mojtaba
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Golzan
mesh_terms: D000544:Alzheimer Disease / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000473:pathology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D000818:Animals; D006801:Humans; D011379:Prognosis; D012160:Retina / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000473:pathology* / Q000503:physiopathology
keywords: Alzheimer's disease; beta amyloid ; biomarkers; early diagnosis; retina; retinal imaging; tau