title: Independent association between socioeconomic indicators and macro- and micro-nutrient intake in Switzerland.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Socioeconomic differences in diet are rarely assessed with more than one indicator. We aimed to assess differences in macro- and micro-nutrient intake in both sexes according to education, income, and occupation.
  
  
  METHODS
  We used data from validated food frequency questionnaire measured dietary intake in 5087 participants (2157 women) from yearly adult population-based cross-sectional surveys conducted from 2005 to 2012 in the canton of Geneva, Switzerland. We used two ANOVA models: age-adjusted and multivariable adjusted simultaneously for all three socioeconomic indicators.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Low-education men consumed more calcium but less vitamin D than high-education men; low-income men consumed less total and animal protein (80.9±0.9 vs 84.0±0.6 g/d; 55.6±1.0 vs 59.5±0.7 g/d) and more total carbohydrates and sugars (246±2 vs 235±2 g/d; 108±2 vs 103±1 g/d) than high-income men. Occupation and diet showed no association. Low-education women consumed less vegetable protein (20.7±0.2 vs 21.6±0.2 g/d), fibre (15.7±0.3 vs 16.8±0.2 g/d), and carotene (4222±158 vs 4870±128 μg/d) than high-education women; low-income women consumed more total carbohydrates (206±2 vs 197±1 g/d) and less monounsaturated fat (27.7±0.4 vs 29.3±0.3 g/d) than high-income women. Finally, low-occupation women consumed more total energy (1792±27 vs 1714±15 kcal/d) and total carbohydrates (206±2 vs 200±1 g/d), but less saturated fat (23.0±0.3 vs 24.4±0.2 g/d), calcium (935±17 vs 997±10 mg/d) and vitamin D (2.5±0.1 vs 2.9±0.1 μg/d), than high-occupation women.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In Switzerland, the influence of socioeconomic factors on nutrient intake differs by sex; income and education, but not occupation, drive differences among men; among women, all three indicators seem to play a role. Interventions to reduce inequalities should consider the influence of education, income, and occupation in diet to be most effective.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Carlos
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0237-882X
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: de Mestral
authors.affiliation: Department of Internal Medicine, Internal Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Pedro
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Marques-Vidal
authors.affiliation: Unit of Population Epidemiology, Division of Primary Care Medicine, Department of Community Medicine, Primary Care and Emergency Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Jean-Michel
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Gaspoz
authors.affiliation: Unit of Population Epidemiology, Division of Primary Care Medicine, Department of Community Medicine, Primary Care and Emergency Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Jean-Marc
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Theler
authors.affiliation: Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland.|Unit of Population Epidemiology, Division of Primary Care Medicine, Department of Community Medicine, Primary Care and Emergency Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland.|Department of Epidemiology, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, United States of America.
authors.forename: Idris
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Guessous
mesh_terms: D002136:Calcium, Dietary; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004032:Diet; D004034:Diet Surveys; D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates; D004041:Dietary Fats; D004043:Dietary Fiber; D004522:Educational Status; D002149:Energy Intake; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007182:Income; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009752:Nutritional Status; D009790:Occupations; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D013557:Switzerland; D014807:Vitamin D
chemical_list: D002136:Calcium, Dietary; D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates; D004041:Dietary Fats; D004043:Dietary Fiber; D014807:Vitamin D