title: Factors influencing the toxicity of Headline® fungicides to terrestrial stage toads.
abstract: Amphibians are susceptible to exposure from contaminants via multiple pathways. Pyraclostrobin fungicides have been shown to be toxic to terrestrial amphibians at environmentally relevant concentrations; however, these studies did not account for factors that may influence exposure and effects, such as fungicide formulation, age of the individual, exposure route, and physiological state of the individual. We examined Headline® and Headline AMP® fungicide toxicity to adult Anaxyrus cognatus and Anaxyrus woodhousii by direct overspray, as well as acute toxicity of Headline AMP to juvenile A. cognatus through direct overspray, previously exposed soils, and diet. We also assessed effects of hydration state on fungicide toxicity in juvenile A. cognatus and sublethal effects of fungicide exposure on prey-orientation ability of juvenile A. cognatus. Neither formulation of Headline caused mortality of adult A. cognatus and A. woodhousii at up to 5 times the maximum label rate in North American corn (1052 and 879 mL formulation/ha for Headline AMP and Headline fungicides, respectively, corresponding to 1.52 and 2.2 μg pyraclostrobin/cm2, respectively). Exposures of juvenile A. cognatus to Headline AMP via direct overspray and previously exposed soils (2 types) resulted in median lethal rate (LR50) values of 2.4, 3.34, and 3.61 μg pyraclostrobin/cm2, respectively. Dietary Headline AMP exposure was not toxic, prey-orientations were not influenced by exposure, and effects were similar between dehydrated and hydrated treatments (LR50 = 2.4 and 2.3 μg pyraclostrobin/cm2, respectively). These results, combined with exposure concentrations reported in previous studies, suggest that risk of acute mortality for amphibians in terrestrial environments is low and is dictated by body size and site-specific factors influencing exposure. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:2679-2688. © 2017 SETAC.
authors.affiliation: Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA.
authors.forename: J Patrick W
authors.initials: JPW
authors.lastname: Cusaac
authors.affiliation: Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA.
authors.forename: William H
authors.initials: WH
authors.lastname: Mimbs
authors.affiliation: Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA.
authors.forename: Jason B
authors.initials: JB
authors.lastname: Belden
authors.affiliation: Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA.
authors.forename: Loren M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.affiliation: Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA.
authors.forename: Scott T
authors.initials: ST
authors.lastname: McMurry
mesh_terms: D000327:Adsorption; D000818:Animals; D001522:Behavior, Animal / Q000187:drug effects; D002025:Bufonidae / Q000254:growth & development* / Q000502:physiology; D005659:Fungicides, Industrial / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D008401:Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry; D007928:Lethal Dose 50; D012987:Soil / Q000737:chemistry; D012989:Soil Pollutants / Q000032:analysis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity
chemical_list: D005659:Fungicides, Industrial; D012987:Soil; D012989:Soil Pollutants
keywords: Amphibians; Anaxyrus; Ecotoxicology; Fungicide; Pyraclostrobin