title: The physiological adaptations and toxin profiles of the toxic Alexandrium fundyense on the eastern Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea shelves.
abstract: Abundant cyst distributions of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium fundyense (previous A. tamarense north American clade) were recently observed on the north Chukchi Sea shelf and on the eastern Bering Sea shelf, suggesting that A. fundyense is both highly adapted to the local environments in the high latitude areas and might cause toxin contamination of plankton feeders. However, little is known about the physiological characteristics and toxin profiles of A. fundyense in these areas, which are characterized by low water temperatures, weak sunlight, and more or less permanent ice cover during winter. To clarify the physiological characteristics of A. fundyense, the effects of water temperature and light intensity on the vegetative growth and toxin profiles of this species were examined using A. fundyense strains isolated from one sediment sample collected from each area. Using the same sediments samples, seasonal changes of the cyst germination in different water temperatures were investigated. Vegetative cells grew at temperatures as low as 5°C and survived at 1°C under relatively low light intensity. They also grew at moderate water temperatures (10-15°C). Their cysts could germinate at low temperatures (1°C) and have an endogenous dormancy period from late summer to early spring, and warmer water temperatures (5-15°C) increased germination success. These physiological characteristics suggest that A. fundyense in the Chukchi Sea and eastern Bering Sea is adapted to the environments of high latitude areas. In addition, the results suggest that in the study areas A. fundyense has the potential to germinate and grow when water temperatures increase. Cellular toxin amounts of A. fundyense strains from the eastern Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea were ranged from 7.2 to 38.2 fmol cell-1. These toxin amounts are comparable with A. fundyense strains isolated from other areas where PSP toxin contamination of bivalves occurs. The dominant toxin of the strains isolated from the Chukchi Sea was saxitoxin, while most A. fundyense strains from the eastern Bering Sea are dominated by the C2 toxin. Toxin profiles similar to those detected in Chukchi Sea have not been reported by any previous research. The dominance of a highly toxic PST variant in Chukchi A. fundyense suggests that presence of the species at low cell concentrations may cause toxin contamination of predators. This study revealed that abundant A. fundyense cysts deposited on the eastern Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea shelves potentially germinate and grow with PSP toxin contents in the local environments. In conclusion, a high risk of PSP occurrences exists on the eastern Bering Sea and Chukchi Sea shelves.
authors.affiliation: Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, 3-1-1 Minato-cho, Hakodate, Hokkaido 041-8611, Japan; Tokyo Institute of Technology, School of Environment and Society, 2-12-1-M1-4 Ookayama, Meguro, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan. Electronic address: natsuike.m.aa@m.titech.ac.jp.
authors.forename: Masafumi
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Natsuike
authors.affiliation: National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Kanagawa 236-8648, Japan.
authors.forename: Hiroshi
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Oikawa
authors.affiliation: Australian Antarctic Division,203 Channel Highway, Kingston, Tasmania, 7050, Australia.
authors.forename: Kohei
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Matsuno
authors.affiliation: Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, 3-1-1 Minato-cho, Hakodate, Hokkaido 041-8611, Japan.
authors.forename: Atsushi
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Yamaguchi
authors.affiliation: Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, 3-1-1 Minato-cho, Hakodate, Hokkaido 041-8611, Japan.
authors.forename: Ichiro
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Imai
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004141:Dinoflagellida / Q000378:metabolism; D012530:Saxitoxin / Q000032:analysis; D012623:Seawater / Q000032:analysis*; D013696:Temperature; D014118:Toxins, Biological / Q000032:analysis; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis
chemical_list: D014118:Toxins, Biological; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D012530:Saxitoxin
keywords: Alexandrium fundyense; Alexandrium tamarense (north American clade); Bering Sea; Cell growth; Chukchi Sea; Cyst germination; Irradiance; Physiology; Salinity; Saxitoxin; Toxin profile; Water temperature