title: North Andean origin and diversification of the largest ithomiine butterfly genus.
abstract: The Neotropics harbour the most diverse flora and fauna on Earth. The Andes are a major centre of diversification and source of diversity for adjacent areas in plants and vertebrates, but studies on insects remain scarce, even though they constitute the largest fraction of terrestrial biodiversity. Here, we combine molecular and morphological characters to generate a dated phylogeny of the butterfly genus Pteronymia (Nymphalidae: Danainae), which we use to infer spatial, elevational and temporal diversification patterns. We first propose six taxonomic changes that raise the generic species total to 53, making Pteronymia the most diverse genus of the tribe Ithomiini. Our biogeographic reconstruction shows that Pteronymia originated in the Northern Andes, where it diversified extensively. Some lineages colonized lowlands and adjacent montane areas, but diversification in those areas remained scarce. The recent colonization of lowland areas was reflected by an increase in the rate of evolution of species' elevational ranges towards present. By contrast, speciation rate decelerated with time, with no extinction. The geological history of the Andes and adjacent regions have likely contributed to Pteronymia diversification by providing compartmentalized habitats and an array of biotic and abiotic conditions, and by limiting dispersal between some areas while promoting interchange across others.
authors.affiliation: Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité, ISYEB - UMR 7205-CNRS MNHN UPMC EPHE, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, 57 rue Cuvier CP50 F-75005, Paris, France.
authors.forename: Donna
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Lisa De-Silva
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Zoologia and Museu de Zoologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
authors.forename: Luísa L
authors.initials: LL
authors.lastname: Mota
authors.affiliation: Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité, ISYEB - UMR 7205-CNRS MNHN UPMC EPHE, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, 57 rue Cuvier CP50 F-75005, Paris, France.|Department of Biology, Lunds Universitet, Lund, Sweden.
authors.forename: Nicolas
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Chazot
authors.affiliation: Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
authors.forename: Ricardo
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Mallarino
authors.affiliation: Centro de Biologia Molecular e Engenharia Genética, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
authors.forename: Karina L
authors.initials: KL
authors.lastname: Silva-Brandão
authors.affiliation: Universidad Nacional de Colombia, sede Medellín, Medellín, Colombia.|Grupo de investigación Ciencias Forenses y Salud, Tecnológico de Antioquia, Medellin, Colombia.
authors.forename: Luz Miryam Gómez
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Piñerez
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Zoologia and Museu de Zoologia, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
authors.forename: André V L
authors.initials: AV
authors.lastname: Freitas
authors.affiliation: Museo de Historia Natural, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru.
authors.forename: Gerardo
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Lamas
authors.affiliation: Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, CEFE, UMR 5175 CNRS - EPHE - Université de Montpellier - Université Paul Valéry Montpellier, 34293 Montpellier 5, France.
authors.forename: Mathieu
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Joron
authors.affiliation: Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
authors.forename: James
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Mallet
authors.affiliation: Universidad Nacional de Colombia, sede Medellín, Medellín, Colombia.|Grupo de Investigación de Sanidad Vegetal, Universidad Católica de Oriente, Rionegro, Antioquia, Colombia.
authors.forename: Carlos E
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: Giraldo
authors.affiliation: Universidad Nacional de Colombia, sede Medellín, Medellín, Colombia.
authors.forename: Sandra
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Uribe
authors.affiliation: Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 20A Inverleith Row, Edinburgh EH3 5LR, UK.
authors.forename: Tiina
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Särkinen
authors.affiliation: Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK.
authors.forename: Sandra
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Knapp
authors.affiliation: Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK.
authors.forename: Chris D
authors.initials: CD
authors.lastname: Jiggins
authors.affiliation: McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA.
authors.forename: Keith R
authors.initials: KR
authors.lastname: Willmott
authors.affiliation: Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité, ISYEB - UMR 7205-CNRS MNHN UPMC EPHE, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, 57 rue Cuvier CP50 F-75005, Paris, France.
authors.forename: Marianne
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Elias
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D044822:Biodiversity; D002080:Butterflies / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000145:classification / Q000502:physiology*; D002138:Calibration; D049810:Genetic Speciation; D016013:Likelihood Functions; D010802:Phylogeny; D058974:Phylogeography; D013045:Species Specificity; D013997:Time Factors