title: Gender-based Differential Item Functioning in the Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior for the Study of Entrepreneurial Intentions.
abstract: Over the past years the percentage of female entrepreneurs has increased, yet it is still far below of that for males. Although various attempts have been made to explain differences in mens' and women's entrepreneurial attitudes and intentions, the extent to which those differences are due to self-report biases has not been yet considered. The present study utilized Differential Item Functioning (DIF) to compare men and women's reporting on entrepreneurial intentions. DIF occurs in situations where members of different groups show differing probabilities of endorsing an item despite possessing the same level of the ability that the item is intended to measure. Drawing on the theory of planned behavior (TPB), the present study investigated whether constructs such as entrepreneurial attitudes, perceived behavioral control, subjective norms and intention would show gender differences and whether these gender differences could be explained by DIF. Using DIF methods on a dataset of 1800 Greek participants (50.4% female) indicated that differences at the item-level are almost non-existent. Moreover, the differential test functioning (DTF) analysis, which allows assessing the overall impact of DIF effects with all items being taken into account simultaneously, suggested that the effect of DIF across all the items for each scale was negligible. Future research should consider that measurement invariance can be assumed when using TPB constructs for the study of entrepreneurial motivation independent of gender.
authors.affiliation: Department of Production Engineering and Management, Technical University of Crete Chania, Greece.
authors.forename: Leonidas A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Zampetakis
authors.affiliation: Department of Production Engineering and Management, Technical University of Crete Chania, Greece.
authors.forename: Maria
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Bakatsaki
authors.affiliation: Department of Production Engineering and Management, Technical University of Crete Chania, Greece.
authors.forename: Charalambos
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Litos
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Crete Rethymno, Greece.
authors.forename: Konstantinos G
authors.initials: KG
authors.lastname: Kafetsios
authors.affiliation: Department of Production Engineering and Management, Technical University of Crete Chania, Greece.
authors.forename: Vassilis
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Moustakis
keywords: attitudes; differential item functioning; entrepreneurship; gender differences; intentions; theory of planned behavior