title: Etiology, pathophysiology and biomarkers of interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome (IC/PBS) is a chronic pain syndrome and a chronic inflammatory condition prevalent in women that leads to urgency, sleep disruption, nocturia and pain in the pelvic area, to the detriment of the sufferer's quality of life. The aim of this review is to highlight the newest diagnostic strategies and potential therapeutic techniques.
  
  
  METHODS
  A comprehensive literature review was performed on MEDLINE, PubMed, and Cochrane databases gathering all literature about "Interstitial cystitis" and "Painful Bladder Syndrome". Visual analogue scales, epidemiological strategies, pain questionnaires and similar techniques were not included in this literature survey.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The etiology, exact diagnosis and epidemiology of IC/PBS are still not clearly understood. To date, its prevalence is estimated to be in the range of 45 per 100,000 women and 8 per 100,000 men, whereas joint prevalence in both sexes is 10.6 cases per 100,000. There are no "gold standards" in the diagnosis or detection of IC/PBS, therefore, several etiological theories were investigated, such as permeability, glycosaminoglycans, mast cell, infection and neuroendocrine theory to find new diagnostic strategies and potential biomarkers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Due to the fact that this disease is of an intricate nature, and that many of its symptoms overlap with other concomitant diseases, it could be suggested to classify the patients with emphasis on the phenotype, as well as their symptom clusters, to tailor the diagnostic and management choices according to the observed biomarkers.
authors.affiliation: Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA.
authors.forename: Sourav Sanchit
authors.initials: SS
authors.lastname: Patnaik
authors.affiliation: Unit of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Department of Human Pathology in Adulthood and Childhood "G. Barresi", University of Messina, Via Consolare Valeria 1, 98125, Messina, Italy. antlagana@unime.it.
authors.forename: Antonio Simone
authors.identifier: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1543-2802
authors.initials: AS
authors.lastname: Laganà
authors.affiliation: Unit of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Department of Human Pathology in Adulthood and Childhood "G. Barresi", University of Messina, Via Consolare Valeria 1, 98125, Messina, Italy.
authors.forename: Salvatore Giovanni
authors.initials: SG
authors.lastname: Vitale
authors.affiliation: Unit of Urology, Department of Human Pathology, University of Messina, Messina, Italy.
authors.forename: Salvatore
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Butticè
authors.affiliation: Department of Woman and Child Health, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.
authors.forename: Marco
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Noventa
authors.affiliation: Department of Woman and Child Health, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.
authors.forename: Salvatore
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Gizzo
authors.affiliation: Department of General Surgery and Medical Surgical Specialties, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.
authors.forename: Gaetano
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Valenti
authors.affiliation: Department of General Surgery and Medical Surgical Specialties, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.
authors.forename: Agnese Maria Chiara
authors.initials: AMC
authors.lastname: Rapisarda
authors.affiliation: Unit of Psychodiagnostics and Clinical Psychology, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.
authors.forename: Valentina Lucia
authors.initials: VL
authors.lastname: La Rosa
authors.affiliation: Unit of Urology, Department of Human Pathology, University of Messina, Messina, Italy.
authors.forename: Carlo
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Magno
authors.affiliation: Unit of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Department of Human Pathology in Adulthood and Childhood "G. Barresi", University of Messina, Via Consolare Valeria 1, 98125, Messina, Italy.
authors.forename: Onofrio
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Triolo
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Nevada Medical School, Reno, NV, USA.
authors.forename: Vani
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Dandolu
mesh_terms: D015415:Biomarkers / Q000378:metabolism; D002908:Chronic Disease; D015897:Comorbidity; D018856:Cystitis, Interstitial / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology / Q000378:metabolism / Q000503:physiopathology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D040542:Mechanotransduction, Cellular; D010146:Pain; D010147:Pain Measurement; D011788:Quality of Life; D013577:Syndrome
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers
keywords: Diagnostic biomarkers; Interstitial cystitis; Painful bladder syndrome; Treatment strategies