title: Toxicoanthropology: Phthalate exposure in relation to market access in a remote forager-horticulturalist population.
abstract: Phthalates are a class of plasticizing chemicals produced in high volume and widely found in consumer products. Evidence suggests that phthalates may have non-monotonic effects on reproductive hormone activity. With exposure to phthalates virtually ubiquitous among industrialized populations, identifying unexposed and/or minimally exposed human populations is essential for understanding the effects of low level exposures. Our primary objective was to quantify urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations in the Tsimane', a remote population of Bolivian forager-horticulturalists. Our secondary objectives were to determine if phthalate metabolite concentrations vary in relation to access to market goods; and to explore relationships between phthalate and reproductive hormone metabolite concentrations. Given that phthalate exposure is of particular concern during fetal development, we focused on reproductive age women in the current analyses. Phthalate metabolites were assayed in urine samples from 59 naturally cycling, reproductive age Tsimane' women. Market access was assessed as: (1) distance from residence to the largest nearby town (San Borja, Bolivia) and (2) Spanish fluency. Urinary reproductive hormone metabolite concentrations were quantified using enzyme immunoassays. We fit linear models to examine: (1) predictors of phthalate exposure; and (2) relationships between urinary phthalate and reproductive hormone metabolite concentrations. Eight phthalate metabolites were detectable in at least 75% of samples. Median concentrations were up to an order of magnitude lower than industrialized populations. Proximity to San Borja and Spanish fluency were strong predictors of exposure. In exploratory analyses, the sum of the di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate metabolites (∑DEHP) and Mono-isobutyl phthalate (MiBP) were significantly associated with altered concentrations of urinary reproductive hormone metabolites. Remote, subsistence populations, like the Tsimane', offer a unique window into the health effects of endocrine active compounds because: (1) exposures are low and likely to be first generation; (2) a natural fertility lifestyle allows for exploration of reproductive effects; and (3) ever-increasing globalization will result in increasing exposure in the next decade.
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Medicine, University of Rochester, 575 Elmwood Ave, Box EHSC, Rochester, NY 14642, United States. Electronic address: Marissa_Sobolewski@urmc.rochester.edu.
authors.forename: Marissa
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sobolewski
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Medicine, University of Rochester, 575 Elmwood Ave, Box EHSC, Rochester, NY 14642, United States. Electronic address: Bernard_Weiss@urmc.rochester.edu.
authors.forename: Bernard
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Weiss
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-3210, United States; Department of Anthropology, Yale University, 10 Sachem St., New Haven, CT 06511, United States. Electronic address: melanie.martin@yale.edu.
authors.forename: Melanie
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Martin
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-3210, United States. Electronic address: gurven@anth.ucsb.edu.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Gurven
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, United States; Department of Epidemiology, Rutgers School of Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Piscataway, NJ 08854, United States. Electronic address: emily.barrett@eohsi.rutgers.edu.
authors.forename: Emily
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Barrett
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000383:Agriculture; D001838:Bolivia; D006063:Chorionic Gonadotropin / Q000652:urine; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000652:urine*; D004970:Estrone / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000652:urine; D005260:Female; D005640:Follicle Stimulating Hormone / Q000652:urine; D006801:Humans; D010795:Phthalic Acids / Q000652:urine*; D010968:Plasticizers / Q000032:analysis*; D011276:Pregnanediol / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000652:urine; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D006063:Chorionic Gonadotropin; D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D010795:Phthalic Acids; D010968:Plasticizers; C022270:pregnanediol-3 alpha-glucuronide; C015856:estrone-3-glucuronide; D004970:Estrone; D005640:Follicle Stimulating Hormone; D011276:Pregnanediol
keywords: Endocrine disrupting chemicals; Global marketplace; Low concentration exposure; Phthalates; Toxicoanthropology