Plastid phylogenomics reveals evolutionary relationships in the mycoheterotrophic orchid genus Dipodium and provides insights into plastid gene degeneration
The orchid genus Dipodium R.Br. (Epidendroideae) comprises leafy autotrophic and leafless mycoheterotrophic species, the latter confined to sect. Dipodium. This study examined plastome degeneration in Dipodium in a phylogenomic and temporal context. Whole plastomes were reconstructed and annotated for 24 Dipodium samples representing 14 species and two putatively new species, encompassing over 80% of species diversity in sect. Dipodium. Phylogenomic analysis based on 68 plastid loci including a broad outgroup sampling across Orchidaceae found sect. Leopardanthus as sister lineage to sect. Dipodium. The leafy autotrophic species in sect. Dipodium (D. ensifolium) was found sister to all leafless, mycoheterotropic species, supporting a single evolutionary origin of mycoheterotrophy in the genus. Divergence time estimations found that Dipodium arose ca. 33.3 Ma in the lower boundary of Oligocene and crown diversification commenced in the late Miocene, ca. 11.3 Ma. The origin of mycoheterotrophy in the genus was estimated to have occurred in the late Miocene, ca. 7.3 Ma, in sect. Dipodium. The comparative assessment of plastome structure and gene degradation in Dipodium revealed that plastid ndh genes were pseudogenised or physically lost in all Dipodium species, including in leafy autotrophic species of both Dipodium sections. Levels of plastid ndh gene degradation were found to vary among species as well as within species, providing evidence of relaxed selection for retention of the NADH dehydrogenase complex within the genus. Dipodium exhibited an early stage of plastid genome degradation as all species were found to have retained a full set of functional photosynthesis-related genes and housekeeping genes. This study provides important insights into plastid genome degradation along the transition from autotrophy to mycoheterotrophy in a phylogenomic and temporal context.