Gut Microbiota Profiles Differentiate Pure DKD, DKD with Non-Diabetic Renal Disease, and Long-Term Diabetes without Nephropathy: Insights from a Triple Comparative Cohort
Background: Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) exhibits heterogeneous progression, implicating factors beyond hyperglycemia, such as gut microbiota dysbiosis. However, microbial distinctions among biopsy-confirmed pure DKD, DKD with non-diabetic renal disease (DKD+NDRD), and long-term diabetes without nephropathy (DM) remain unclear. This study aimed to identify gut microbial and functional biomarkers differentiating these groups.