This work was supported by Key Project of Guizhou Provincial Basic Research Program (Qiankehejichu ZD[2025]048) and Guizhou Province High-Level Innovative Talent Project Qiankehe Platform Talent-GCC[2022]022).
White clover responds to Al stress through an integrated mechanism characterised by root-prioritised defence, maintenance of photosynthetic function and extensive hormone network rewiring. These findings provide new insight into the molecular basis of Al tolerance in legumes and a conceptual framework for breeding Al-tolerant forage cultivars.